Discharge Voltage Research Articles

High‐Voltage Recyclable Organic Cathode Enabled by Heteroatomic Substitution for Aqueous Zinc‐Ion Batteries

AbstractN‐type organic compounds present themselves as promising high‐capacity cathodes for aqueous Zn‐ion batteries. However, a common challenge is their working voltages often falling below 1 V versus Zn2+/Zn. To bridge this gap, a high‐voltage organic material is first developed, 5,6,11,12‐tetraazanaphthacene (TANC), using a heteroatomic substitution strategy. TANC feature a large π‐conjugated plane enriched with π−π interactions, which not only enhancing structural stability but also boosting charge transfer kinetics. The TANC cathode is achieved from its dihydro precursor, denoted as 2H‐TANC, via a facile in situ activation process within the battery itself. This electrochemical synthesis method is cost‐effective and environmentally friendly compared to traditional chemical method. The cathode shows a record‐high discharge voltage of 1.15 V (vs Zn2+/Zn) among n‐type organic materials and maintains cycling stability over 47,500 cycles. Furthermore, spent TANC electrodes can be efficiently recycled via a simple extraction process. The work marks a significant step toward the development of high‐voltage, affordable, and recyclable organic electrode materials, steering them to the forefront of future sustainable battery technologies.

Characterization of the Conversion of Benzene to Nitrosobenzene in a Helium Low-Temperature Plasma

The ionization of benzene (C6H6) through helium low-temperature plasma (He-LTP) offers a promising solution to the pervasive issue of its pollution in our daily lives. This study aimed to optimize the conditions for generating specific compounds, namely M+ and [M + 30]+, during the ionization of benzene in low-temperature plasma (LTP) with determination by mass spectrometry (MS). When the discharge voltage is 2.5 kV, a sample gas to discharge gas flow rate ratio of 2:3 is the best condition for generating M+ ions. When the discharge voltage is 3.5 kV, the gas flow rate ratio of 1:3 is the most suitable for generating [M + 30]+ ions. The LTP exhibits optimal ionization efficiency at a total gas flow rate of 40 mL/min. Additionally, we conducted a comparative analysis on the optical emission of benzene in the LTP which revealed the generation of free radicals associated with N, H, and O. The produced nitroso radical (ON•) combines with ionized benzene to yield the [M + 30]+ ion, identified to be nitrosobenzene. Notably, 95% conversion was achieved in the transformation from benzene to nitrosobenzene.

Multifeature‐based online remaining useful life prediction of lithium‐ion batteries in stages using cascaded data‐driven algorithm

AbstractAccurately predicting the remaining useful life (RUL) is crucial for the safety and stability of battery systems. Considering the inherent challenges in directly measuring the capacity of lithium‐ion batteries during operation, this paper proposes an online hybrid cascaded data‐driven prediction algorithm for RUL. Health indicators (HIs) are extracted from the charge–discharge voltage and incremental capacity curves, following which gray correlation analysis is employed to quantitatively assess the relevance between the HIs and batteries' capacities. Redundancy of HIs is eliminated through kernel principal component analysis, which enhancing the efficiency of subsequent analysis. The proposed framework incorporates the sparrow search algorithm‐based kernel extreme learning machine (SSA‐KELM) as the first‐level prediction model, establishing the relationship between HIs and capacities. The bidirectional long short‐term memory (BiLSTM) is utilized as the secondary‐level model, which integrates the preliminary capacity predictions of SSA‐KELM. Finally, experimental validation using battery datasets from NASA and Oxford showed that the method has remarkable generalization ability and superior prediction accuracy. Quantitatively, the RMSE and MAPE of NASA batteries are within 0.03, while the errors of Oxford batteries are within 0.003. The RUL prediction errors of all lithium‐ion batteries are within two cycles.

Plume mode instability enhanced by emitter surface poisoning in hollow cathode

The unstable plume mode of hollow cathodes should be avoided in practical applications because it severely degrades the overall cathode lifetime. In this study, we investigate the spot-plume transition and plasma stability characteristics of an unused segmented lanthanum hexaboride emitter. The expansion of the unstable plume mode region is observed during a discharge experiment. Subsequently, the segmented emitter is retrieved, the inner surface of the emitter is observed, and the work function on the surface is measured at room temperature. The emitter surface exhibits color variations with oxygen and carbon detection. The downstream edge shows the original purple color and almost no degradation in the work function. The high temperature in this region promotes the desorption of carbon and oxygen. In the spot mode, this region mainly contributes to thermionic electron emission; therefore, the discharge voltage in the spot mode does not change during the discharge experiment. Carbon or carbide is detected in the middle of the axial direction on the emitter surface, where the surface temperature is not sufficiently high to desorb carbon during discharge. Based on the surface analysis results, the dominant substance in the region where carbon is detected was lanthanum carbide. An increase in the work function is indicated in the region, which appears to increase the plasma instability. According to previous studies, an increase in the work function results in a rise in the potential in the emitter, and an increase in the electron temperature in the outside plume region induces the plasma instability. Further investigation is needed to understand the mechanism connecting the rise in the work function and the rise in the electron temperature in the plume region.

Brackish groundwater desalination by constant current membrane capacitive deionization (MCDI): Results of a long-term field trial in Central Australia

A long-term field trial of membrane capacitive deionization (MCDI) was conducted in a remote community in the Northern Territory of Australia, with the aim of producing safe palatable drinking water from groundwater that contains high concentrations of salt and hardness ions and other contaminants. This trial lasted for 1.5 years, which, to our knowledge, is one of the longest reported studies of pilot-scale MCDI field trials. The 8-module MCDI pilot unit reduced salt concentration to below the Australian Drinking Water Guideline value of 600 mg/L total dissolved solids (TDS) concentration with a relatively high water recovery of 71.6 ± 8.7 %. During continuous constant current operation and electrode discharging at near zero volts, a rapid performance deterioration occurred that was primarily attributed to insufficient desorption of multivalent ions from the porous carbon electrodes. Performance could be temporarily recovered using chemical cleaning and modified operating procedures however these approaches could not fundamentally resolve the issue of insufficient electrode performance regeneration. Constant current discharging of the electrodes to a negative cell cut-off voltage was hence employed to enhance the stability and overall performance of the MCDI unit during the continuous operation. An increase in selectivity of monovalent ions over divalent ions was also attained by implementing negative voltage discharging. The energy consumption of an MCDI system with a capacity of 1000 m3/day was projected to be 0.40∼0.53 kWh/m3, which is comparable to the energy consumption of electrodialysis reversal (EDR) and brackish water reverse osmosis (BWRO) systems of the same capacity. The relatively low maintenance requirements of the MCDI system rendered it the most cost-efficient water treatment technology for deployment in remote locations. The LCOW of an MCDI system with a capacity of 1000 m3/day was projected to be AU$1.059/m3 and AU$1.146/m3 under two operational modes, respectively. Further investigation of particular water-energy trade-offs amongst MCDI performance metrics is required to facilitate broader application of this promising water treatment technology.

Dynamics of NO, N2O, and ONOOH in atmospheric-pressure air dielectric barrier discharge: decoupling energy density and gas temperature effects varying with discharge voltage

The dose regulation of reactive nitrogen species is crucial for biomedical applications. In this study, we develop a global chemical kinetics model comprising 92 species and 1018 reactions to investigate the regulatory dynamics of three types of reactive nitrogen species, i.e. NO, N2O, and ONOOH, which vary with the discharge voltage in an air coaxial dielectric barrier discharge. Based on the experimental results, the model can describe the density variations of NO, N2O, and ONOOH. The simulation results indicate that the O, NO3− , NO2− , and O3 are essential intermediate species related to NO generation; N, NO2, O-, N2*, and O(1D) are essential intermediate species related to N2O generation; and O2− , NO, NO2, OH, O4− , and O3 are essential intermediate species related to ONOOH generation. The individual and comprehensive effects of the energy density and gas temperature on the densities of NO, N2O, and ONOOH and the corresponding intermediate species are quantified under increasing discharge voltages. The simulation results indicate that the energy density is the primary factor affecting the number density of NO, N2O, and ONOOH, whereas the gas temperature exerts a completely different effect on these three species. These insights are valuable for plasma applications in biomedicine, where the selective and controlled production of reactive nitrogen species is key for achieving the desired plasma performance.

Formaldehyde degradation by soft-sliding-electrification-induced air ionization

Formaldehyde (HCHO), a highly toxic and carcinogenic gas, is the most common indoor air pollutant and a threat to human health. Developing simple and effective technological routes to achieve sustainable degradation of HCHO has become a common goal. In this work, we reported a self-powered air-ionized HCHO degradation system based on a soft-sliding freestanding mode triboelectric nanogenerator (SSF-TENG). The sliding-electrification process between soft rabbit fur and a robust PTFE film enables the generation of electrical outputs of up to ten thousand volts that can trigger air breakdown. The generated O3, ·OH and other highly oxidizing substances could degrade HCHO into CO2 and H2O. Through a standard ball gap platform based on two hollow Cu balls, the voltage of air discharge was measured to be between 11.2 kV and 14.4 kV. For demonstration, the SSF-TENG was applied to two parallel disk-shaped Cu electrodes to continuously breakdown the air with a peak discharge current of 6 mA. The system can produce a maximum O3 concentration of 1.2 ppm within 50 minutes. Moreover, the HCHO concentration can be reduced from 1.6 ppm to 0 within 20 minutes, and the degradation speed reaches 0.08 ppm/min. This work highlights the application of triboelectric microplasma in pollutant removal, which has great potential in self-powered environmental purification.

Determination of Hotspot Temperature Margin for Rectangular Wire Windings Considering Insulation Thermal Degradation and Partial Discharge

Increasing current density is a common way to improve the power density of electrical machines (EMs) which also boosts the winding temperature. Higher winding temperature accelerates the thermal degradation of insulation and also increases the risk of partial discharge (PD). Commonly, the winding hotspot temperature constraint is decided based on an over-engineering approach (i.e., the winding hotspot temperature is 30°C below the wire thermal class) constraining the EM’s performance. In this paper, the margin of winding hotspot temperature is precisely determined focusing mainly on the insulation degradation issues through experimental investigation. The partial discharge inception voltage and partial discharge extinction voltage have been measured under different temperature conditions for samples with different thermal aging statuses. Rectangular wires which find application in automotive motors are selected as test samples. The results link the temperature with the PD risk and the thermal lifetime of the insulation, and the winding hotspot temperature margin is accordingly determined. An automotive case study is presented to prove the applicability of the investigation outcomes.

Lithium-Ion Battery State of Health Estimation by Matrix Profile Empowered Online Knee Onset Identification

Lithium-ion batteries (LiBs) degrade slightly until the knee onset, after which the deterioration accelerates to end of life (EOL). The knee onset, which marks the initiation of the accelerated degradation rate, is crucial in providing an early warning of the battery’s performance changes. However, there is only limited literature on online knee onset identification. Furthermore, it is good to perform such identification using easily collected measurements. To solve these challenges, an online knee onset identification method is developed by exploiting the temporal information within the discharge data. First, the temporal dynamics embedded in the discharge voltage cycles from the slight degradation stage are extracted by the dynamic time warping. Second, the anomaly is exposed by Matrix Profile during subsequence similarity search. The knee onset is detected when the temporal dynamics of the new cycle exceed the control limit and the profile index indicates a change in regime. Finally, the identified knee onset is utilized to categorize the battery into long-range or short-range categories by its strong correlation with the battery’s EOL cycles. With the support of the battery categorization and the training data acquired under the same statistic distribution, the proposed SOH estimation model achieves enhanced estimation results with a root mean squared error as low as 0.22%.

Trapped O2 and the origin of voltage fade in layered Li-rich cathodes

Oxygen redox cathodes, such as Li1.2Ni0.13Co0.13Mn0.54O2, deliver higher energy densities than those based on transition metal redox alone. However, they commonly exhibit voltage fade, a gradually diminishing discharge voltage on extended cycling. Recent research has shown that, on the first charge, oxidation of O2− ions forms O2 molecules trapped in nano-sized voids within the structure, which can be fully reduced to O2− on the subsequent discharge. Here we show that the loss of O-redox capacity on cycling and therefore voltage fade arises from a combination of a reduction in the reversibility of the O2−/O2 redox process and O2 loss. The closed voids that trap O2 grow on cycling, rendering more of the trapped O2 electrochemically inactive. The size and density of voids leads to cracking of the particles and open voids at the surfaces, releasing O2. Our findings implicate the thermodynamic driving force to form O2 as the root cause of transition metal migration, void formation and consequently voltage fade in Li-rich cathodes.

Superior specific capacity and energy density simultaneously achieved by Sr/In co-deposition behavior of Mg-Sr-In ternary alloys as anodes for Mg-Air cells

In this work, the combined addition of strontium/indium (Sr/In) to the magnesium anode for Mg-Air Cells is investigated to improve discharge performance by modifying the anode/electrolyte interface. Indium exists as solid solution atoms in the α-Mg matrix without its second-phase generation, and at the same time facilitates grain refinement, dendritic segregation and Mg17Sr2-phases precipitation. During discharge operation, Sr modifies the film composition via its compounds and promoted the redeposition of In at the substrate/film interface; their co-deposition behavior on the anodic reaction surface enhances anode reaction kinetics, suppresses the negative difference effect (NDE) and mitigates the “chunk effect” (CE), which is contributed to uniform dissolution and low self-corrosion hydrogen evolution rate (HER). Therefore, Mg-Sr-xIn alloy anodes show excellent discharge performance, e.g., 0.5Sr-1.0In shows an average discharge voltage of 1.4234 V and a specific energy density of 1990.71 Wh kg−1 at 10 mA cm−2. Furthermore, the decisive factor (CE and self-discharge HE) for anodic efficiency are quantitively analyzed, the self-discharge is the main factor of cell efficiency loss. Surprisingly, all Mg-Sr-xIn anodes show anodic efficiency greater than 60% at high current density (≥10 mA cm−2), making them excellent candidate anodes for Mg-Air cells at high-power output.

Advancing battery energy storage system: State‐of‐health aware state‐of‐charge balancing in multilevel inverters for electric transportation

AbstractThis research presents an innovative methodology for enhancing battery energy storage systems for electrically powered transportation, utilizing a distinctive cascaded H‐bridge multilevel inverter design, termed P‐CHBMI. Central to this work is the development of a state‐of‐health aware state‐of‐charge (SoH‐aware‐SoC) balancing technique, which leverages an advanced algorithm integrated with a Proportional‐Integral (PI) controller technique to efficiently balance battery cells according to their state‐of health (SoH). This technique significantly improves operational efficiency and extends the lifespan of battery systems by intelligently optimizing cell discharge processes. Moreover, this research work delivers a wide range of simulations for the generation of a streamlined control algorithms for the development of the symmetric and asymmetric configuration of the P‐CHBMI. Similarly, recommended topology is proficient of equal voltage discharge across battery cells, which is an exclusive property of the conventional cascaded H‐bridge topology. The study includes extensive MATLAB/Simulink simulations to validate the superiority of the P‐CHBMI and the SoH‐aware‐SoC balancing method over conventional systems, highlighting substantial enhancements in switch count efficiency, operational flexibility, and battery durability. Further, the practical applicability of the proposed topology is evidenced through a hardware implementation of a symmetric 5‐level inverter. This study plays a significant role in the development of the inverter technology particularly in off‐grid scenarios such as electric vehicle and aircrafts, keeping the battery efficiency and reliability as a most important factor.

Mitigating the efficiency-voltage trade-off in magnesium air battery via a novel active learning framework

Reconciling the inherent trade-off between anodic efficiency and discharge voltage in the design of high-energy-density magnesium-air (Mg-air) batteries has been a persistent challenge. Herein, we propose a pioneering active learning strategy that integrates physically motivated variables, machine learning, exploration of the Pareto front, experimental data feedback, and generated data feedback for the purpose of designing magnesium anodes. Within an extensive compositional space (∼350,000 possibilities), we have pinpointed a novel alloy, Mg-1Ga-1Ca-0.5In, exhibiting exceptional performance with high efficiency (64 ± 5.5 % at 1 mA cm−2, 64 ± 0.5 % at 10 mA cm−2) and high voltage (1.80 ± 0.00 V at 1 mA cm−2, 1.57 ± 0.01 V at 10 mA cm−2), surpassing conventional methods of alloying. Subsequent experiments and density functional theory (DFT) calculations have unveiled that the outstanding performance of Mg-1Ga-1Ca-0.5In stems from “grain boundary activation” induced by active second phases and “intra-grain inhibition” resulting from the orbital hybridization between solute atoms and Mg atoms. This study provides a novel research paradigm and offers valuable insights for the further development of high-performance Mg-air batteries.

Identification of the impact of electric pulse action on the disintegration of a natural mineral

The work is devoted to the study of the electric pulse disintegration of a natural mineral. The object of the study is the natural mineral quartzite of the Aktas deposit of the Republic of Kazakhstan. For the destruction and grinding of quartzite, a working cell of an electric pulse unit was developed. Electric pulse crushing is a modern technique for grinding a variety of materials, which provides the desired degree of grinding with a certain granulometric composition of the product and has a high ability of selective crushing. With the help of this technology, quartzite grinding was carried out with an increase in the capacity of capacitor banks from 0.25 mF to 1 mF, the pulse discharge voltage changed from 20 kV to 30 kV, the number of pulse discharges from 500 to 1,000, the inner diameter of the working cell from 60 mm to 80 mm. The results of the disintegration of a natural mineral by the electric pulse method allowed us to determine the degree of grinding of the finished product. The obtained results can be used in the study and optimization of the extraction of natural minerals, which is important for ensuring the sustainable use of natural resources and balanced economic development. Crushed quartzite is used in various industries, including the production of optical fibers, electronics and photovoltaic devices. A material with a particle diameter of 0.1 to 0.4 millimeters is used to create glass, ceramic and porcelain products, as well as insulation materials. Due to its homogeneous composition containing up to 98 % silicon oxide (SiO2) and excellent absorbent properties, quartz sand is also used as a filter material for water purification

A comprehensive multiphysics approach to model solutal buoyancy, thermal convection, and electro-vortex flow phenomena for liquid metal batteries

To alleviate the effects of pollution and global warming, the transition to renewable energy sources is taking place at an accelerating rate. The intermittent nature of renewable energy production can be addressed by an energy storage solution that is low-cost, efficient, and based on earth-abundant materials, and a liquid metal battery (LMB) is coming up as one such solution. Liquid metal battery (LMB) performance, especially its discharge voltage, depends on the concentration profile of cathode which in turn is influenced by fluid flow. In this study, we examine three significant phenomena that impact fluid behavior: solutal buoyancy, internally heated convection, and electro-vortex flow (EVF). Though several attempts have been made to model these processes individually or in a combination of two, a model that simulates all three aspects for resultant fluid flow has not been reported. Therefore, this study develops a comprehensive multiphysics model to simulate the positive electrode that is validated with experimental results for Li||Bi cell operating at 450 °C by coupling all of the aforementioned phenomena. While charging with a current density of 1 A/cm2, our model predicts an average velocity of ∼6 mm/s in the cathode solely due to solutal buoyancy. In the case of discharging, both solutal and internal thermal effects lead to an increase in overpotential to as high as ∼200 mV. Moreover, during discharging, the EVF induced a poloidal fluid flow with a maximum velocity of ∼3–5.5 mm/s at 1 A/cm2, reducing mass transport overpotential by ∼10 mV, but it could not disrupt the lighter intermetallic stratification layer on top of the cathode. Additionally, we investigated the charging overpotential phenomenon due to unstable stratification. This all-inclusive model leveraging solutal, thermal, and EVF effects not only offers insights into the fluid motion, concentration gradient, and voltage profile for a lab-scale LMB but can accurately simulate te conditions prevalent in commercial large LMBs, thereby catalysing the path to commercialization of LMBs.

A Multifaceted Competitive Zn–Cu Battery Unleashed by Optimizing Charge Protocols

AbstractRechargeable alkaline Zn–Cu batteries show great potential for energy storage systems due to their high capacity, cost‐effectiveness, and environmental‐friendliness. However, restricted by the severe dissolution upon charging, rapid capacity decline occurs throughout the cycle. Herein, the charging protocol is adjusted to bypass the dissolution stage of high‐valent states, thereby preserving the optimal reaction section of Zn–Cu batteries and greatly improving cycling stability. Additionally, a self‐activation process in the initial stage led to the spontaneous transformation of the original electroplated Cu particles on nickel foam from 10 to 4 mm, enhancing both conductivity and mass transfer, ultimately increasing the utilization of active materials. The battery achieved a discharge capacity of 349.5 mAh g−1, an ultra‐flat charge–discharge voltage platform, over 92% energy efficiency, a low cost of only $43.25 per kWh, and an exceptionally stable cyclic performance with no noticeable decay over 400 cycles. These 5D improvements position the Cu electrode as a robust candidate for the positive electrode material in the next generation of commercial Zn batteries.

Falling liquid droplets discharge

This paper reports the phenomenon of two plasma segments forming when a water droplet descends, one between the upper part of the droplet and the outlet tube and the other between the lower part of the droplet and the water surface in the container. The study reveals that as the water droplet descends, the length of the upper plasma gradually increases, while the length of the lower plasma decreases until the lower plasma disappears upon contact between the water droplet and the water in the container. The study finds that the rotational temperature of this plasma reaches 2100 K, with an electron density of 1014 cm−3. Furthermore, it is intriguing to note that the descent speed of the droplet is significantly greater than that of a freely falling droplet. Further research indicates that this is due to an instant water channel explosion-induced downward impact on the droplet caused by plasma generation at the upper part of the droplet. The advantage of this device lies in the fact that the plasma only comes into direct contact with water, without any contact with metal electrodes, thus eliminating the issue of electrode corrosion. Furthermore, since the water is in dynamic flow, it facilitates the dissolution of reactive gaseous components into the water, making it suitable for applications related to plasma-activated water and similar purposes.

Emerging Frontiers in Multichannel Membrane Capacitive Deionization: Recent Advances and Future Prospects.

Capacitive deionization (CDI) has emerged as a promising desalination technology and recently promoted the development of multichannel membrane capacitive deionization (MC-MCDI). In MC-MCDI, the independent control of multiflow channels, including the feed and electrolyte channels, enables the optimization of electrode operation in various modes, such as concentration gradients and reverse voltage discharge, facilitating semicontinuous operation. Moreover, the integration of redox couples into MC-MCDI has led to advancements in redox-mediated desalination. Specifically, the introduction of redox-active species helps enhance the ion removal efficiency and reduce energy consumption during desalination. This systematic approach, combining principles from CDI and electrodialysis, results in more sustainable and efficient desalination. These advancements have contributed to improved desalination performance and practical feasibility, rendering MC-MCDI an increasingly attractive option for addressing water scarcity challenges. Despite the considerable interest in and potential of this process, there is currently no comprehensive review available that covers the operational features and applications of MC-MCDI. Therefore, this Review provides an overview of recent research progress, focusing on the unique cell configuration, vital operation principles, and potential advantages over conventional CDI. Additionally, innovative applications of MC-MCDI are discussed. The Review concludes with insights into future research directions, potential opportunities in industrial desalination technology, and the fundamental and practical challenges for successful implementation.

Parametric optimizing of electro-discharge machining for LM25Al/VC composite material machining using deterministic and stochastic methods

AbstractThe electro-discharge machining (EDM) process is investigated using deterministic and stochastic methods to determine and model the effects of process parameters on machining performance. The workpiece utilized for the investigation was an LM25 aluminum alloy reinforced with vanadium carbide (VC), processed through a stir casting technique. EDM process parameters like peak current, discharge voltage, and pulse on-time are considered to analyze material removal rate, electrode wearing rate, and surface roughness. This study applied four multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) and analytical methodologies to evaluate EDM performance. Then, the MCDM scores were compared using two objective verification mechanisms. In this case, the teaching-learning-based optimization (TLBO) technique delivered the best-desired results relative to the VIKOR, Grey relational grade (GRG), and the response surface method (RSM). Also, the RSM and analytical methods are simpler than the other methods, though they produced nearly identical results as the sophisticated MDCM and deterministic methods.

Experimental investigation of the external load effect on thermoelectric generator discharge time in a low power energy harvesting system

Thermoelectric generator systems are often evaluated and studied in open circuit and close circuit modes. In the open circuit case, minimum heat flux passes across the thermoelectric module and the module does not have any thermal losses. Moreover, in the close circuit system, the external consumer is connected to the module and higher heat is pumped from its hot side to cold side. Hence, investigating the effect of external load resistance as the consumer connected to the module on its response is a significant issue in thermoelectric systems. In this study, to evaluate the effect of various consumers (4, 8, 10, 15, 20 and 30 Ω) over the module on discharge time, output voltage and temperature on both sides of the module, thermoelectric systems lacking and containing phase change material as the useful means for energy storage and thermal management of thermoelectric system were designed and exposed to constant heat loads. Results of this study show that the power consumption of the internal resistance of the module (connected to the consumer) led to an increase in the temperature of both sides of the module compared to open circuit systems. Therefore, the thermal balance and temperature distribution over the module changes and more affected. The maximum output power and discharge time were obtained at the external resistance of 4 Ω (close to the average internal resistance of the module) in the studied systems. The phase change material prevented excessive temperature on the hot side during the charging process and provided proper thermal management to enhance voltage generation and discharge time. The thermoelectric generator is an effective technology in starting consumers with low resistance, such as light bulbs and remote controls.