Direct Voltage Research Articles

Minimization of torque ripple in the BLDC drive using a high performance novel switched inductor QZS converter

Abstract In brushless direct current drives, ripple during commutation is an important issue that arises during speed changes and transitions, as the incoming and outgoing phase currents vary at different rates simultaneously. This research study introduces a novel approach to minimize the variation in the commutation torque of a BLDC motor. The strategy involves the use of a quasi-Z source-based DC-DC converter circuit with a switched inductance. A comprehensive study of torque variations in both the commutation and conduction zones is performed for the BLDC drive, and a switching inductor quasi-Z source DC-DC converter has been built alongside the three-phase voltage source inverter to minimize the variation in commutation torque. The control technique and switch selector circuit have been integrated to attain the intended input direct current voltage throughout the commutation phase. The novel methodology being examined has been developed utilizing the MATLAB/Simulink software. By presenting simulation data, the efficacy of the proposed system and traditional BLDC drive is validated.

Stylus pen-based ambient ionization mass spectrometry for the analysis of volatiles and semivolatiles from liquid, viscous, and solid samples.

Ambient ionization mass spectrometry (MS) has attracted significant attention due to its simplicity and ease of operation. Contactless, or field-induced, ionization is one of the ambient ionization techniques. In this approach, no direct electrical contact or additional voltage is required on the ionization-assisted substrate. Instead, the electric field is induced by the high voltage applied to the orifice of the mass spectrometer. However, there remains a demand for exploring compact and readily available ionization substrates for use in field-induced ionization techniques. A stylus pen, typically used for touch screens, is used as an ion source for analyzing volatile and semivolatile organic compounds. Vapors originating from volatile and semivolatile compounds placed underneath the inlet of the mass spectrometer were ionized when the stylus pen was positioned near the inlet, which is applied with a high voltage. The limits of detection for semivolatiles and volatiles were in the range of mM to a few hundred nM, depending on the vapor pressure and chemical structures of these analytes. Additionally, semivolatile compounds found in real samples could be directly detected using our method. Moreover, we also demonstrated the feasibility of using the stylus pen as the sampling probe to pick up samples from the surface of a glass slide, followed by bringing the pen close to the inlet of the mass spectrometer for direct MS analysis using our approach. The developed method provides a straightforward approach for analyzing volatiles and semi-volatiles under ambient conditions. Ionization of the analyte vapor near the mass spectrometer inlet can readily occur by placing a stylus pen close to the inlet, highlighting simplicity as the main advantage of the developed method. Consequently, this method can be easily coupled with a mass spectrometer that has a high voltage applied to its orifice.

Influence of metal particles shape on direct current voltage electric properties of nanofluids

It is widely recognized that the application of nanoparticles has the potential to improve the dielectric properties of transformer oil. Nevertheless, there is a scarcity of studies that have utilized pure nanofluids, and in practical applications, it is inevitable for transformer oil to become contaminated. Therefore, this study conducted tests to investigate how the shape and size of metal contaminants impact the dielectric performance of Fe3O4 nanofluids. The findings from the levitation voltage test indicate that as the size and diameter of the particle increase, the levitation voltage value measured also increases, and conversely. Moreover, a higher concentration of nanoparticles leads to a higher measured levitation voltage value. On the other hand, the breakdown voltage test results demonstrate that larger and sharper particles result in lower measured breakdown voltage values, and vice versa. The simulation outcomes regarding electric field distribution reveal that larger and sharper particles correspond to higher measured electric field values, while the opposite is true for smaller and less sharp particles.

Design and Development Power Generation Mock-UP Trainer

This study aims to design and develop a Power Generation Mock-Up Trainer for educational purposes at Surigao del Norte State University (SNSU) and other State Universities and Colleges (SUCs) and training centers in the Philippines. The trainer enhances electrical students' cognitive and tactile skills, addressing challenges faced by automotive technology students in wiring and connecting actual electrical circuits. The Power Generation Mock-Up Trainer simulates real-world scenarios, allowing students to work with realistic components and systems to develop competency and practical analytical skills. The revised trainer improves upon the existing alternator model by directly coupling the battery to the alternator, with the engine operating at variable speeds during battery charging. This design adjusts the direct current voltage output based on data from the battery management system. The product design and development process includes data collection, design, testing, and revisions, culminating in the final product. Test results show that the trainer is 94% effective in simulating industrial electrical installations (Elfizon, et al., 2019). By providing a versatile and durable learning tool, the trainer helps students understand power generation and battery management in dynamic conditions. This innovation bridges the gap between theoretical knowledge and practical application, preparing students for industry demands and enhancing learning outcomes.

Characterization of polymerizable monomers for polymer-sustained-alignment liquid crystal cells with photo-alignment layers

As a model of new-type polymer-sustained-alignment liquid crystal display (PSA-LCD), LC cells having PSA layers formed by mixed monomers of 4,4’-dimethacryloyl-oxy-biphenyl (4,4’-DMABiph) as a main monomer and 4,4’-dimethacryloyl-oxy-benzophenon (4,4’-DMABenz) or 4,4’-dimethacryloyl-oxy-benzil (4,4’-DMABzl) as additional monomers were fabricated on photo-alignment layers, and investigated image sticking characteristics of residual direct current voltage (V rDC) and difference in pretilt angle (Δtilt) before and after application of alternate current voltage. A rate constant of polymerization was increased with the addition of 4,4’-DMABenz or 4,4’-DMABzl, inducing the improvement of the V rDC. The Δtilt was maintained low level even the additional monomers were added, indicating that the level of the image sticking became low. In addition, high voltage holding ratios were maintained under backlight exposure, indicating that long-term stability is also high. Furthermore, new fabrication process of the PSA layer was proposed; the PSA layer was formed by LED-backlight exposure through intermediary of a polarizer by using the mixed monomers of 4,4’-DMABiph and 4,4’-DMABzl.

MULTILEVEL INVERTER TO GENERATE VOLTAGE WITH COMPLEX HARMONIC COMPOSITION

The paper deals with the problem of forming the desired and controllable harmonic composition of the output curve of a multilevel voltage inverter. The problem is relevant when creating installations for multi-frequency induction heating and metal melting. The purpose of the study is to develop an effective method to form the output voltage of power sources for multi-frequency induction heating installations, the curve of which has a given harmonic spectrum. Materials and methods. The theoretical part of the work was carried out on the basis of the circuit base of multi-level voltage inverters and switching DC converters using numerical analytical methods of studying nonlinear electrical circuits, methods of solving nonlinear differential equations and approximate harmonic analysis, as well as simulation modeling methods using the MATLAB/Simulink mathematical package. Experimental verification of the theoretical results was carried out in laboratory conditions on the example of a multi-level inverter generating a voltage curve with three operating harmonics. ACS758 series sensors and a four-channel RIGOL DS1104Z digital oscilloscope were used to record the results. Research results. Achieving of the purpose is based on the use of a universal multilevel voltage inverter, the circuit scheme of which does not depend on the levels number of the generated curve, which ensures a minimum number of power elements for any complexity of the curve spectrum. The method of forming of the output curve of this inverter consists in alternately connecting of the output capacitors of two direct voltage impulse converters to the input of a single-phase bridge voltage inverter using a transistor switch. In this case, voltages of different parity levels are formed by capacitors in the order of their succession, as a result of which a constant-sign multilevel voltage is formed on the input of the bridge inverter, corresponding to the required alternating-sign multilevel voltage. The law of the transistor switching of the bridge inverter ensures the conversion of its input voltage into a load voltage with a given harmonic composition. The peculiarity of the developed converter control method is that the transistor switching of the bridge inverter is carried out in accordance with the change in the sign of the generated curve. The method contains an algorithm to determine levels values formed by capacitors of impulse converters that realizes the required spectrum of the inverter output curve. The efficiency of the proposed method is illustrated by computer modeling of the converter when voltage with four working harmonics of the spectrum (i.e. the required spectrum harmonics) is generated. The quality indicators of the realized spectrum of the voltage curve are proposed and the analysis results of the influence of the levels number on values of these indicators are presented. The efficiency of the proposed methods is demonstrated experimentally with a laboratory model of the converter. Conclusions. The paper proposes a method to form the output voltage of a power source, the curve of which has a given harmonic, the efficiency of which is confirmed by the results of computer modeling and laboratory experiments. The proposed technical solutions made it possible to generate an output voltage, the spectrum of the curve of which contains four or more harmonics with specified amplitudes with a minimum number of power elements of the circuit. The paper also proposes models of quality indicators of the realized spectrum of the voltage curve and presents the results of the analysis of the influence of the number of levels on the values of these indicators. The developed methodology allows the development in the direction of controlling the spectrum of the generated voltage in real time, as well as non-periodic alternating voltage that changes according to a given program in accordance with the requirements of the technological process.

ANALYSIS OF PROCESSES IN CONVERTER WITH TWENTY-FIVE-ZONE VOLTAGE REGULATION AND ACTIVE-INDUCTIVE LOAD

Analysis of the electromagnetic processes is organized beside this article in electric circuit with semiconductor commutator. Mathematical model is created for analysis electro-magnetic processes in semiconductor converter with width pulsed regulation of the output voltage. The broughted graphs, which reflect the electromagnetic processes in electric circuit. Method much parametric functions was used when performing calculation. The mathematical model of the converter is created for fifteen zoned regulations of the output voltage. Article is devoted to the development of a method of multi-parametric modulating functions by means of working out of new mathematical models and definition of functions and the algorithmic equations for the analysis on sub-system components of electromagnetic processes in electric circuits of variable structure with sinusoidal, direct and pulsing voltage. Introduction of functions with discrete parameters in the algorithmic equations for analysis of processes in circuits with semiconductor commutators simplifies modeling on subsystem components. The mathematical model of steady-state processes and transients in electric circuits of semiconductor converters of modulation type with multi-channel zonal use of phase and line voltages of a three-phase network of power supplies is developed. The mathematical model of electric circuits of thyristor shapers of electro-discharge pulses for the analysis and the matching of capacitors charging modes with decrease several times of electric resistance of technological load is also created. The obtained results have a great value for development theoretical electrical engineering in a direction of simplification of calculations of electromagnetic processes in electric circuits with semi-conductor converters of the electric power. The Electromagnetic processes in electric circuit under width-pulse regulation possible to analyse with use the algorithmic equations multivariable function, which argument are a system parameters semiconductor commutator, signal of control, phases to network of the power supply and time. Introduction multivariable function with discrete parameter in algorithmic equations of the analysis formed and connecting processes in electric circuit of the variable structure allows to reflect change of this structure under system components, simplifying modeling and analysis of such processes to account of the generalization of the got equations. Except specified correlations and diagrams designed model allows to analyse forms of the output voltages and current of the separate power modules.

Axons compensate for biophysical constraints of variable size to uniformize their action potentials.

Active conductances tune the kinetics of axonal action potentials (APs) to support specialized functions of neuron types. However, the temporal characteristics of voltage signals strongly depend on the size of neuronal structures, as capacitive and resistive effects slow down voltage discharges in the membranes of small elements. Axonal action potentials are particularly sensitive to these inherent biophysical effects because of the large diameter variabilities within individual axons, potentially implying bouton size-dependent synaptic effects. However, using direct patch-clamp recordings and voltage imaging in small hippocampal axons in acute slices from rat brains, we demonstrate that AP shapes remain uniform within the same axons, even across an order of magnitude difference in caliber. Our results show that smaller axonal structures have more Kv1 potassium channels that locally re-accelerate AP repolarization and contribute to size-independent APs, while they do not preclude the plasticity of AP shapes. Thus, size-independent axonal APs ensure consistent digital signals for each synapse within axons of same types.

Conducting Polymers and Thermosensitive Hydrogels for Green Electricity Generation

Sustainable strategies to generate electricity using natural resources, such as sunlight (photovoltaic cells) and wind (wind towers), have driven a significant change in our homes in terms of electricity consumption. Herein, a new alternative for green electricity supply using solar‐driven evaporators devices fabricated with hydrogels is described. The photothermal electricity production is promoted by alginate‐poly(N‐isopropylacrylamide) (ALG‐PNIPAAm) bio‐hydrogel, modified with acid‐doped conducting polymer (CP), as thermal absorber component, to minimize energy losses. Direct current and voltage monitoring are used during the solar irradiation experiments to evaluate the power density of the hydrogel thermal electricity generator, whereas electrochemical impedance spectroscopy is employed to approach the diffusion processes. Impedance measurements elucidate the ion diffusion dynamics within the hydrogel, directly correlating this behavior to enhanced power generation. Therefore, the highest power supply (64.4 μW·cm−2) and current stability (32–33 μA), over time, are obtained for ALG‐PNIPAAm‐PEDOT‐PSS hydrogel, demonstrating that hydrophilic groups (OH, SO3H), present in the CP backbone, promote the capillary flow of the electrolyte during the sunlight irradiation. The doped CP molecules facilitate a fast ion transport thanks to a good balance between the material hydrophilicity and the interconnected pores.

Voltage-induced rearrangement in silver nanoparticles spatial distribution produced by EAFD method and its LSPR optimization

Abstract This paper presents a voltage-induced and thermal annealing rearrangement (VITAR) method based on modified electric field assisted film dissolution method as a flexible and powerful tool for manipulating nanoparticles spatial distribution based on drift and diffusion mechanisms that occur due to external DC voltage and thermal annealing processes. Different samples with various arrangements of external DC voltage and thermal annealing processes have been produced. The extinction and attenuated total reflection (ATR) spectra, as well as atomic force microscope (AFM) images, have been employed to investigate their optical and morphological properties. Four cases with arrangements of DV-Anl, DV-Anl-DV, DV-Anl-IV, and DV-IV-Anl have been studied. The AFM images show that by applying secondary voltage (direct or inverse voltage), it is possible to drift nanoparticles and change its morphology (size and shape) as well as surface and volume distributions. As a result, by applying a secondary direct voltage (in the DV-Anl-DV case), the surface density of nanoparticles decreases due to direct drift force. It is notable that in this case, the extinction peak and ATR depth have not significantly changed. By applying a secondary inverse voltage (in the DV-Anl-IV, and DV-IV-Anl cases), an increase in the surface density of the nanoparticles has been observed. Also, the extinction peak has increased, and the ATR depth has decreased in the DV-Anl-IV case, but in the DV-IV-Anl case, due to the uniform size of surface nanoparticles, the resonance power has shown a significant increase in both extinction and ATR spectra compared to other cases. The resulting changes in extinction and ATR spectra show that by using the VITAR process, the surface structure, morphology and its optical properties can be optimized and this method provides a great opportunity to enhance Localized Surface Plasmon Resonance effects, which can be employed in nano-optical devices.

Optimal operation control strategy for off-grid photovoltaic hydrogen production system considering hydrogen production efficiency

Off-grid photovoltaic hydrogen production is an effective solution for improving photovoltaic (PV) utilization and obtaining green hydrogen. The main challenge faced by off-grid photovoltaic hydrogen production systems (OGPHPS) is how to deal with the randomness, intermittency, and volatility of PV generation. Therefore, this paper proposes an optimal operation control strategy (OOCS). First, a model of OGPHPS is established, comprising photovoltaics, batteries, and an electrolytic array (ELA). Second, a two-step optimization strategy (TSOS) that integrates both long-term and short-term time scales is proposed. In the first step of TSOS, the day-ahead optimization of the operation state of ELA is conducted according to day-ahead power prediction. A constraint was proposed to balance the operation time of the electrolyzer. In the second step of TSOS, according to the ultra-short time power prediction and the electrolyzer efficiency curve, the rolling optimization of the operating power distribution of ELA is carried out. Through TSOS, PV generation consumption is maximized by ELA, the continuous operational stability of OGPHPS is enhanced, and the lifespan of electrolyzer is extended. Third, to alleviate the influence of instantaneous power fluctuation on the system, an energy management strategy (EMS) for OGPHPS is proposed. Finally, a simulation model of OGPHPS was established, and the simulation results showed that the direct current bus voltage fluctuation was within 3%. Compared to the chain allocation strategy, the OOCS achieves higher hydrogen production under the same solar irradiance conditions. Particularly in low irradiance, OOCS has more sufficient consumption of PV generation and higher hydrogen production efficiency.

Model predictive direct voltage control strategy with hybrid cost function and loss observer for 3P-2L-VSC converter system

3P-2L-VSC converter system suffers from complex control structure, cumbersome parameter design and slow system dynamic response under conventional double-loop scheme. In this paper, model predictive direct voltage control strategy with hybrid cost function and loss observer is designed to improve system performance and simplify system control structure. First, a model predictive direct voltage control strategy is proposed based on Euler discrete differential and integral method to enhance system dynamic response, which eliminates the cascaded intermediate link and achieves direct targets control. Second, a system power loss observer is designed based on Lyapunov function to improve prediction accuracy for FCS-MPC and system steady performance. Third, an improved hybrid cost function with targets and intermediate state is designed to track targets and reduce intermediate state fluctuation, which overcomes the lack of inner current loop. Finally, the advantages of the proposed strategy are verified in simulation and experiment, where the maximum RMSEs of steady state Vdc, iq and id are 0.045, 0.81 and 0.58 at rated power respectively, and the recovery time of DC voltage is reduced by about 30 ms and 35 ms compared with PI-MPC when DC load and DC voltage change.

Strain detection based on magnetic domain wall motion in amorphous FeSiBNb thin film

The strain dependence of the pulse voltage induced in a pickup coil originating from the domain wall motion in an amorphous FeSiBNb thin film was investigated. No significant change in the peak pulse voltage was observed when tensile strain was applied to the thin film, whereas the peak pulse voltage changed steeply when compressive strain was applied. In addition, strain susceptibility could be controlled via appropriate annealing. Evaluation of the strain gauge comprising the amorphous FeSiBNb thin film, a pickup coil, an electrical circuit (which converts the pulse voltage into direct current voltage), and a Helmholtz coil revealed that strain gauge has a notably high gauge factor of approximately 37,500.

A Non-Linear Control Technique for Single Phase qZSI

Quasi-Z-source inverters, or qZSIs, are a common type of inverter used in transformer-less systems because they can boost or buck input voltage without a requirement for a DC- DC converter. A transformer is not necessary for the qZSI's single-stage conversion to operate as a grid-tie converter. In transformer-less designs common mode current is the major problem, though, because there is no galvanic isolation. To reduce the common mode current, this article offers controlling the qZSI using a modified pulse width modulation (PWM) approach two additional semiconductor switches. The developed methodology provides a practical means of integrating solar photovoltaic systems into the grid. what the recommended topology's attributes should be: 1)It uses the phase-leg shoot through to boost the direct current and voltage to required level by eliminating the need for a second dc-dc converter. 2) Freewheeling is achieved while removing PWM deadtime by employing extra linked switches.

Electrodeposition of graphene oxide on titanium foil. Application field: Rechargeable batteries

The method of electrodepositing graphene oxide on titanium utilizes a thin grade 1 titanium foil with a thickness of 0.2 mm, a width of 10 mm, and a rectangular graphite plate with a parallelepiped shape with a thickness of 15 mm, a width of 40 mm, and a length of 100 mm. The titanium foil has a cut on one side, forming an isosceles triangle with a slightly inclined tip, creating an angle where the distance between the tip and the vertical symmetry axis of the foil is 3 mm. The titanium foil is positioned parallel to the graphite plate, with the tip as the only electrical contact. The two electrodes, titanium and graphite, assembled in this way, are immersed in an electrolytic solution composed of water and sulfuric acid. When a direct current voltage is applied between the two electrodes, a strong electric field is generated at the contact point, resulting in high temperature and the production of ultraviolet rays. Following a treatment described later in the so-called “preparation protocol,” reduced graphene oxide (rGO) is produced in suspension in the solution at the contact point between the tip of the titanium foil and the graphite plate, which, due to the electric field, tends to deposit on the titanium surface. A possible application found experimentally refers to rechargeable batteries.

Design, modeling, and characteristics of ring-shaped robot actuated by functional fluid

The controlled actuation of hydraulic and pneumatic actuators has unveiled fresh and thrilling opportunities for designing mobile robots with adaptable structures. Previously reported rolling robots, which were powered by fluidic systems, often relied on complex principles, cumbersome pump and valve systems, and intricate control strategies, limiting their applicability in other fields. In this investigation, we employed a distinct category of functional fluid identified as Electrohydrodynamic (EHD) fluid, serving as the pivotal element within the ring-shaped actuator. A short stream of functional fluid is placed within a fluidic channel and is then actuated by applying a direct current voltage aiming at shifting the center of mass of the robot and finally pushed the actuator to roll. We designed a ring-shaped fluidic robot, manufactured it using digital machining methods, and evaluated the robot’s characteristics. Furthermore, we developed static and dynamic models to analyze the oscillation and rolling motion of the ring-shaped robots using the Lagrange method. This study is anticipated to contribute to the expansion of current research on EHD flexible actuators, enabling the realization of complex robotic systems.

Real-Time Identification and Nonlinear Control of a Permanent-Magnet Synchronous Motor Based on a Physics-Informed Neural Network and Exact Feedback Linearization

This work proposes a novel method for the real-time identification and nonlinear control of a permanent-magnet synchronous motor (PMSM) based on a Physics-Informed Neural Network (PINN) and the exact feedback linearization approach. The proposed approach is presented in a direct-quadrature framework, where the quadrature current and the rotational speed are selected as outputs and the direct and quadrature voltages are selected as inputs. A nonlinear difference equation is selected to describe the physical dynamics of the PMSM, and a PINN is designed based on the aforementioned structure. A simplified training scheme is designed for the PINN based on a least-squares structure to facilitate online training in real time. A nonlinear controller based on exact feedback linearization is designed by considering the nonlinear model of the system identified based on the PINN. Therefore, the proposed approach involves identification and control in real time, where the PINN is trained online. In order to track the reference for the rotational speed, a nonlinear controller with integral action based on exact feedback linearization is designed based on a linear quadratic regulator. As a result, the proposed approach can be used to identify the system to be controlled in real time, and it is able to track any small change in the real model; in addition, it is robust to both external and internal disturbances, such as variations in torque load and resistance. The proposed approach is evaluated through simulation and using a real PMSM, and the results of reference tracking are evaluated under disturbances. The identification performance is evaluated by using a Taylor diagram under closed-loop and open-loop structures, where ARX and NARX structures are used for comparison. It is thereby verified that this novel proposed control approach involving a PINN-based model can adequately track the dynamics of a PMSM system, where the performance of the proposed nonlinear control is maintained even when using the identified model based on the PINN.

True Random Number Generator Based on Chaotic Oscillation of a Tunable Double-Well MEMS Resonator.

Chaotic systems have aroused interest across various scientific disciplines such as physics, biology, chemistry, and meteorology. The deterministic but unpredictable nature of a chaotic system is an ideal feature for random number generation. Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) are a promising technology that effectively harnesses chaos, offering advantages such as a compact footprint, scalability, and low power consumption. This paper presents a true random number generator (TRNG) based on a double-well MEMS resonator integrated with an actuator and position sensor. The potential energy landscape of the proposed MEMS resonator is actively tunable with a direct current voltage. Experimental demonstrations of tunable bistability and chaotic resonance are reported in this paper. A chaotic time sequence is generated through piezoresistive sensing of the position of the MEMS resonator once it is driven into the chaotic regime. Subsequently, the randomness of the bit sequence, achieved by applying the exclusive or function to a digital chaotic sequence and its delayed differential is confirmed to meet the National Institute of Standards and Technology specifications. Moreover, the throughput and energy efficiency of the proposed MEMS-based TRNG can be adjusted from 50 kb s-1 and 0.44 pJ per bit at a low energy barrier to 167 kb s-1 and 6.74 pJ per bit at a high energy barrier by changing the MEMS device's potential well. The tunability of the proposed double-well MEMS resonator not only offers continuous adjustments in the energy efficiency of TNRG but also unveils vast and diverse research opportunities in analog computing, encryption, and secure communications.

An enhanced maximum power point tracking and voltage control for proton exchange membrane fuel cell using predictive model control techniques

Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells serve as sustainable devices for converting renewable energy sources into electricity, offering advantages such as rapid startup, high power density, and operation at low temperatures. They are highly efficient and environmentally friendly energy sources, yet their non-linear output characteristics under variable conditions present challenges in maximizing power output. Furthermore, they generates direct current, while many electrical devices rely on alternating current. This research addresses the necessity of enhancing the performance and efficiency through the development of an advanced maximum power point tracking technique and voltage control strategy. A modified finite-control-set model predictive control technique is proposed for both maximum power point tracking and voltage control. Specifically, a finite-control-set model predictive control technique approach is employed to modulate the switching signal for both the DC-DC boost converter and the DC-AC inverter. The DC-DC boost converter step up the fuel cell output voltage to the desired level, ensuring it reaches the maximum power point, and a DC-AC inverter to convert the direct current voltage to a pure sinusoidal alternating waveform. The investigation demonstrates the effectiveness of the proposed method in achieving its objectives. The proposed maximum power point tracking technique accuracy achieved the maximum power with a rate of 97 % with excellent respond time within 7 ms. For alternating current power, only less than 1.5 % of total harmonic distortion is recorded. The study evaluates the control scheme under robust operating conditions, demonstrating its effectiveness in optimizing PEMFC output and providing high-quality AC voltage.

Electromagnetic Plasma Reactor: Fermionic Derivation Tools

From the developed theories around of an electromagnetic plasma reactor designed and controlled through geometrical invariants has been demonstrated the existence of derived products from electromagnetic plasma as are phonons, fermions, ions, free electrons and protons, magnetic and electric drifts, which can be used as complement or development part of the electromagnetic propulsion system where the fermion flow can produce a ionic force that could be used as propulsion force considering shock waves produced with an electric field on these ions. Likewise, experimentally and considering direct current and voltage in a constant regime, has been detected as ionic wind which carries fermion products to be used too in the possible electromagnetic propulsion. These are other products proposes of previous works. Likewise, through of a caption and detection camera, is measured the electromagnetic properties of the ionic flow of the space derived from the electromagnetic plasma, and is proposed a curvature energy signal of magnetic nature to measure the force and control the electromagnetic plasma and its ionic flow.