Direct Observation Measures Research Articles

Cognitive Correlates of Functional Abilities in Individuals with Mild Cognitive Impairment: Comparison of Questionnaire, Direct Observation, and Performance-Based Measures

The relationship between, and the cognitive correlates of, several proxy measures of functional status were studied in a population with mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Participants were 51 individuals diagnosed with MCI and 51 cognitively healthy older adults (OA). Participants completed performance-based functional status tests and standardized neuropsychological tests, and performed eight activities of daily living (e.g., watered plants, filled medication dispenser) while under direct observation in a campus apartment. An informant interview about everyday functioning was also conducted. Compared to the OA control group, the MCI group performed more poorly on all proxy measures of everyday functioning. The informant report of instrumental activities of daily living (IADL) did not correlate with the two performance-based measures; however, both the informant-report IADL and the performance-based everyday problem-solving test correlated with the direct observation measure. After controlling for age and education, cognitive predictors did not explain a significant amount of variance in the performance-based measures; however, performance on a delayed memory task was a unique predictor for the informant-report IADL, and processing speed predicted unique variance for the direct observation score. These findings indicate that differing methods for evaluating functional status are not assessing completely overlapping aspects of everyday functioning in the MCI population.

Metal oxide-based nanoparticles: revealing their potential to enhance oil recovery in different wettability systems

This paper presents systematic studies of hydrophilic metal oxide nanoparticles (NPs) dispersed in brine intended to reveal their potential to enhance oil recovery (EOR) in various rock wettability systems. The stability in suspension (nanofluid) of the NPs has been identified as a key factor related to their use as an EOR agent. Experimental techniques have been developed for nanofluid stability using three coupled methods: direct visual observation, surface conductivity and particle size measurements. The use of a dispersant has been investigated and has been shown to successfully improve metal oxide nanofluid stability as a function of its concentration. The dispersant alters the nanofluid properties, i.e. surface conductivity, pH and particle size distribution. A two-phase coreflood experiment was conducted by injecting the stable nanofluids as a tertiary process (nano-EOR) through core plugs with various wettabilities ranging from water-wet to oil-wet. The combination of metal oxide nanofluid and dispersant improved the oil recovery to a greater extent than either silica-based nanofluid or dispersant alone in all wettability systems. The contact angle, interfacial tension (IFT) and effluent were also measured. It was observed that metal oxide-based nanofluids altered the quartz plates to become more water-wet, and the results are consistent with those of the coreflood experiment. The particle adsorption during the transport process was identified from effluent analysis. The presence of NPs and dispersant reduced the IFT, but its reduction is sufficient to yield significant additional oil recovery. Hence, wettability alteration plays a dominant role in the oil displacement mechanism using nano-EOR.

Development of a direct observation Measure of Environmental Qualities of Activity Settings

The aim of this study was to develop an observer-rated measure of aesthetic, physical, social, and opportunity-related qualities of leisure activity settings for young people (with or without disabilities). Eighty questionnaires were completed by sets of raters who independently rated 22 community/home activity settings. The scales of the 32-item Measure of Environmental Qualities of Activity Settings (MEQAS; Opportunities for Social Activities, Opportunities for Physical Activities, Pleasant Physical Environment, Opportunities for Choice, Opportunities for Personal Growth, and Opportunities to Interact with Adults) were determined using principal components analyses. Test-retest reliability was determined for eight activity settings, rated twice (4-6wk interval) by a trained rater. The factor structure accounted for 80% of the variance. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy was 0.73. Cronbach's alphas for the scales ranged from 0.76 to 0.96, and interrater reliabilities (ICCs) ranged from 0.60 to 0.93. Test-retest reliabilities ranged from 0.70 to 0.90. Results suggest that the MEQAS has a sound factor structure and preliminary evidence of internal consistency, interrater, and test-retest reliability. The MEQAS is the first observer-completed measure of environmental qualities of activity settings. The MEQAS allows researchers to assess comprehensively qualities and affordances of activity settings, and can be used to design and assess environmental qualities of programs for young people.

A Pilot Study Comparing Observational and Questionnaire Surrogate Measures of Pesticide Exposure Among Residents Impacted by the Ecuadorian Flower Industry

Self-reported measures of residential pesticide exposure are commonly used in epidemiological studies, especially when financial and logistical resources are limited. However, self-reporting is prone to misclassification bias. This pilot study assesses the agreement between self-report of residential pesticide exposure with direct observation measures, in an agricultural region of Ecuador, as a cross-validation method in 26 participants (16 rose workers and 10 controls), with percent agreement and kappa statistics calculated. Proximity of homes to nearby flower farms was found to have only fair agreement (kappa =.35). The use of discarded plastics (kappa =.06) and wood (kappa =.13) were found to have little agreement. Results indicate that direct observation or measurement may provide more accurate appraisals of residential exposures, such as proximity to industrial farmland and the use of discarded materials obtained from the flower farms.

Optical system for microscopic observation and strain measurement at high temperature

A system of optical microscopy has been developed for high-temperature direct observation and strain measurement. Observations at high temperatures are carried out using a UV CCD camera and UV illumination while thermal radiation is cut off by a UV light transmission filter. Observation of a Vickers indentation on polycrystalline α-Al2O3 revealed that sufficient image contrast was maintained up to 1400 °C. The potential of the proposed system for strain measurement via digital image correlation was evaluated through measuring the thermal strain of polycrystalline α-Al2O3; the obtained coefficient of thermal expansion agreed well with the reported values.

Caracterización de gallinas batsi alak en las tierras altas del sureste de México

A study was conducted for zoometric characterization of 508 adult hens (132 males and 376 females) from nine communities in three municipalities from Los Altos de Chiapas region (Chiapas highlands). Description was obtained by direct observation, weight and corporal measurements. Feathers colors is diverse, but the tonalities predominant are dark (68.3 %), brunettes (14.4 %) or white (10 %). The plumage is normal (97.8 %) or curled (2.17 %), with naked neck (6.29 %), feathered neck (93.7 %), feathered shank (8.66 %), fringed (35.8 %) and feathered cheeks and fringed (7.48 %). The comb shape is simple (87 %) or rose type (11.6 %). The skin was predominantly white (56.8 %) or yellowish (41.7 %). The eyes presented an orange (64.5 %) or yellow (21 %) color. The average weight of females was 1900 ± 376 g (CV: 19.8 %) and of males was 2280 ± 630 g (CV: 27.8 %). Measurements were larger in males whit high variability. High correlations between weight and thoracic perimeter for males and females were found. This variability involves a biological richness and may be a great potential for the creation of rustic productive lines for Los Altos de Chiapas region in the highlands of Chiapas, Mexico.

Behavior Regulation and Early Math and Vocabulary Knowledge in German Preschool Children

Research Findings: Behavior regulation, including paying attention, remembering instructions, and controlling action, contributes to children's successful adaptation to and functioning in preschool and school settings. This study examined the development of behavior regulation in early childhood and its potential contribution to individual differences in children's early knowledge (mathematics and vocabulary). Sixty German preschool children were administered a direct observational measure of behavior regulation, the Head-to-Toes Task, and a standardized test to assess early mathematics and vocabulary. Results revealed significant gains in behavior regulation between of 3 and 4 years of age. Moreover, early gender differences were found, with girls outperforming boys at age 4. Behavior regulation was significantly related to performance on the academic tasks, but the pathways to math and vocabulary knowledge differed. Practice or Policy: Discussion focuses on the role of behavior regulation in early academic achievement.

Using photovoice to identify patient transfers risk factors in long-term care home settings

The variety of tasks performed in a variety of organisations complicates having a gold standard tool for identifying workplace injury risk factors. There are three main approaches for identifying risk factors; self-reports (e.g., surveys, focus groups, interviews), direct observation (e.g., checklists), and direct measurement (e.g., electromyography). Alternatively, this study aimed to use photovoice, a participatory approach that uses photographs to evoke discussion and the identification of issues, or in this case risk factors. The purpose of this study was to determine whether photovoice strategies could be useful to help workers identify risk factors inherent in lifting and transferring residents in nursing homes. It was found that photovoice is a viable method for identifying risk factors. Overall, the photovoice method was enjoyed by the participants, was advantageous in identifying risk factors, and promoted group participation, communication, and empowerment.

Quality Assurance and Performance Improvement in Nursing Homes

The Quality Assurance and Performance Improvement Initiative, a component of the Affordable Care Act (2010), is a new approach to quality improvement for US nursing homes. The article describes components of the Quality Assurance and Performance Improvement Initiative, the unique contributions of registered nurses to its implementation, and data collection strategies using direct observation and evidence-based measures and protocols in a Quality Assurance and Performance Improvement program.

Relation between direct observation of relaxation and self-reported mindfulness and relaxation states.

Forty-four individuals, 18-47 (MN 21.8, SD 5.63) years of age, took part in a study examining the magnitude and direction of the relationship between self-report and direct observation measures of relaxation and mindfulness. The Behavioral Relaxation Scale (BRS), a valid direct observation measure of relaxation, was used to assess relaxed behavior snd served as the criterion variable. Two self-report measures, the Relaxation Inventory (RI) and the Smith Relaxation State Inventory-Revised (SRSI-R), a measure assessing 15 relaxation-States (R-States) including the R-State Aware, a proxy for mindfulness. Participants were assessed on two occasions, one week apart. Self-report measures were administered in random order immediately after direct observation of relaxed behavior. Correlation analysis was conducted to examine the relationships between measures. Interobserver agreement of relaxed behavior was obtained on 41% of the observations. Data from Time 1 and 2 were combined and a mean score was derived and used in the analysis of relationships. There was no significant relation between the R-State Aware and BRS (r = .10, p = .25). No further analysis of relations between self-report measures was possible due lack to failure to replicate the construct validity of the RI. Results indicate the R-State Aware is not a proxy measure of mindfulness as suggested by Smith (2005). Further research examining the relation between relaxation training and mindfulness is needed.

COMPUTER‐ASSISTED MEASUREMENT OF WOUND SIZE ASSOCIATED WITH SELF‐INJURIOUS BEHAVIOR

We evaluated an inexpensive, efficient, and noninvasive technique for measuring tissue damage produced by self-injurious behavior (SIB). The technique involved computerized measurement of wound surface area (WSA) based on digital photographs. In Study 1, we compared photographic measurement to a more commonly used procedure, transparency measurement, in estimating WSA of 20 wound models. Results showed that both methods were reliable and that there was a high degree of correspondence between the 2 sets of measures. In Study 2, we compared photographic WSA measures to direct-observation measures in documenting changes over time in the SIB exhibited by a woman with Prader-Willi syndrome. Results showed that increases and decreases in observed SIB during baseline and treatment conditions corresponded with changes in WSA measures, indicating that the computer-assisted photographic technique may be useful as a corroborative measure or as a primary measure when direct observation of SIB is not feasible.

Use of a Direct Observational Measure in a Trial of Risperidone and Parent Training in Children with Pervasive Developmental Disorders.

A Structured Observational Analog Procedure (SOAP), an analogue measure of parent-child interactions, was used to assess treatment outcome in children with Autism Spectrum Disorder and serious behavior problems. It served as a secondary outcome measure in a 24-week, randomized trial of risperidone (MED; N=49) versus risperidone plus parent training (COMB; n=75) (ages 4-13 years). At 24-weeks, there was 28 % reduction in child inappropriate behavior during a Demand Condition (p=.0002) and 12 % increase in compliance to parental requests (p=.004) for the two treatment conditions combined. Parents displayed 64 % greater use of positive reinforcement (p=.001) and fewer repeated requests for compliance (p<.0001). In the analysis of covariance (ANCOVA), COMB parents used significantly more positive reinforcement (p=.01) and fewer restrictive statements (p<.05) than MED parents. The SOAP is sensitive to change in child and parent behavior as a function of risperidone alone and in combination with PMT and can serve as a valuable complement to parent and clinician-based measures.

ADA Compliance and Accessibility of Fitness Facilities in Western Wisconsin.

The study expands the research on fitness facility accessibility by determining how compliant fitness facilities in rural western Wisconsin were with Title III of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA). Comparisons were made with 4 other studies that were conducted in different geographical regions. The study also examined fitness professionals' disability knowledge and awareness. An ADA fitness facility compliance instrument and a fitness professional disability awareness survey were used. Direct observation and physical measurements were taken during on-site visits to 16 of 36 eligible fitness facilities in rural western Wisconsin. Ten fitness professionals from participating facilities completed an online survey. Frequencies were used to analyze the results. None of the participating facilities were in 100% compliance with ADA. Customer service desk (84%) and path of travel throughout the facility (72%) were the highest compliance areas. Telephone (6%) and locker rooms (32%) were the lowest compliance areas. No fitness professional was trained in wheelchair transfers and very few had received training in providing services to individuals with disabilities. Fitness facility accessibility remains a concern nationally. Continued efforts need to be made to raise the awareness of ADA compliance among fitness professionals across the United States, especially in rural areas where fitness facility availability is limited.

Multi-method assessment of feeding problems among children with autism spectrum disorders

Abstract Estimates suggest that atypical eating is pervasive among children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD); however, much remains unknown regarding the nature and prevalence of feeding problems in this population due to methodological limitations, including lack of adequate assessment methods and empirical evaluation of existing measures. In the current study, a sample of 30 children ages 3–8 years completed a multi-method assessment battery involving a standardized mealtime observation, a food preference inventory, and the Brief Autism Mealtime Behavior Inventory (BAMBI), which represents the first attempt to assess the correspondence between direct observation and parent-report measures of feeding concerns and dietary intake in ASD. During the mealtime observation, fourteen participants either rejected (n = 8) or accepted (n = 6) all bites, while the remaining 16 participants demonstrated selective patterns of acceptance by type and/or texture. Among this subgroup, vegetables were the most frequently rejected food type during the behavioral observation. Vegetables were also the most frequently rejected food based on parent report for the sample. Increased food selectivity was positively correlated with problem behaviors during the observation, while ASD symptom severity and growth parameters were unrelated to feeding data. We discuss findings in relation to clinical and research activities and recommend strategies to achieve more systematic research in this area.

Behavioral validation of avolition in schizophrenia

Since Kraepelin, avolition, a core symptom of schizophrenia, has been defined as a decrease in spontaneous, self-initiated and purposeful behaviors observed in daily life activities. However, the concurrent validity of commonly-used avolition measures has not been studied, and direct observation may offer a more objective way to measure avolition. A direct observation measure of spontaneous and self-initiated behaviors that can be observed in an inpatient setting was defined with the use of time sampling method. This direct observation measure was used with fifty inpatients with schizophrenia. Additionally, patients were asked to rate their current interest in and their level of engagement in 10 active behaviors during the preceding 7 days. Clinicians rated the patients' engagement in the same activities for the preceding 7 days as well. The direct observation measure showed very good psychometric properties. Three clinical negative symptom scales showed moderate to high correlation with the direct measure. Concerning the retrospective ratings, patients' self-assessments were poorly correlated with clinicians' ratings, but showed high correlation with their subjective interests. Clinical rating scales of negative symptoms show moderate to good concurrent validity as measures of avolition in schizophrenia. However, patients' self-reports do not appear to provide valid indices of avolition. Our results favor clinical negative symptoms scales that use observers' reports only, over patients' self-reports. The direct observation of patients' behavior offers a precise and objective measure of avolition that may be useful in drug challenges and clinical trials.

The impact of system of care support in adherence to wraparound principles in Child and Family Teams in child welfare in North Carolina

North Carolina is one of a growing number of states to implement family meeting models in child welfare as a way to engage families, while simultaneously addressing complex familial needs and child safety issues. However, much is still unknown regarding how family meetings actually operate in child welfare, underscoring a clear need for further evaluation of this process. Utilizing direct observational data of Child and Family Team (CFT) meetings, collected as part of two separate evaluations of the North Carolina Division of Social Service's Multiple Response System (MRS) and System of Care (SOC) initiatives, the purpose of the current study was to examine whether the support provided by SOC improved fidelity to the CFT model in child welfare. The observations were conducted using the Team Observation Measure consisting of 78 indicators that measure adherence to ten domains associated with high quality family team meetings (e.g., collaborative, individualized, natural supports, outcomes based, strengths-based). Findings indicate that receiving SOC support in child welfare leads to a more collaborative and individualized decision-making process with families. Meeting facilitators in SOC counties were better prepared for CFTs, and had greater ability to lead a more robust and creative brainstorming process to develop a family-driven case plan. The current study also provides a much needed description of the CFT meeting process within child welfare using a direct observational measure.

Evaluation of Physical Activity Counseling in Primary Care Using Direct Observation of the 5As

The 5As (ask, advise, assess, assist, arrange) are recommended as a strategy for brief physical activity counseling in primary care. There is no reference standard for measurement, however, and patient participation is not well understood. This study's objectives were to (1) develop a coding scheme to measure the 5As using audio-recordings of primary care visits and (2) describe the degree to which patients and physicians accomplish the 5As. We developed a coding scheme using previously published definitions of the 5As, direct-observation measures, and evaluation of audio-recorded discussions of physical activity. We applied the coding scheme to 361 audio-recorded visits by patients reporting low levels of physical activity and 28 physicians in northeast Ohio. The coding scheme achieved good inter-rater agreement for each of the 5As (κ = 0.62-1.0). A total of 135 visits included discussion of physical activity. Although ask tasks occurred in 91% of visits, it infrequently elicited sufficient detail about current activity. Patient readiness to change physical activity (assess) was infrequently directly elicited by the physician (24%), but readiness was commonly expressed by the patient in response to an assessment of current level of physical activity (53%). Ambivalence was infrequently followed by physician assistance (49%). Our newly developed measure showed that (1) physicians infrequently assess patient readiness to change, (2) patient expressions of ambivalence are common, and (3) specific mention of recommended guidelines for exercise is nearly absent. Future work should increase clinician skills in exploring ambivalence and readiness to change, as well as improve explicit mention of recommended guidelines for physical activity.

Cognitive Correlates of Functional Performance in Older Adults: Comparison of Self-Report, Direct Observation, and Performance-Based Measures

Neuropsychologists are often asked to answer questions about the effects of cognitive deficits on everyday functioning. This study examined the relationship between and the cognitive correlates of self-report, performance-based, and direct observation measures commonly used as proxy measures for everyday functioning. Participants were 88 community-dwelling, cognitively healthy older adults (age 50-86 years). Participants completed standardized neuropsychological tests and questionnaires, and performed eight activities of daily living (e.g., water plants, fill a medication dispenser) while under direct observation in a campus apartment. All proxy measures of everyday function were sensitive to the effects of healthy cognitive aging. After controlling for age, cognitive predictors explained a unique amount of the variance for only the performance-based behavioral simulation measure (i.e., Revised Observed Tasks of Daily Living). The self-report instrumental activities of daily living (IADL) and the performance-based everyday problem-solving test (i.e., EPT) did not correlate with each other; however, both were unique predictors of the direct observation measure. These findings suggest that neuropsychologists must be cautious in making predictions about the quality of everyday activity completion in cognitively healthy older adults from specific cognitive functions. The findings further suggest that a self-report of IADLs and the performance-based EPT may be useful measures for assessing everyday functional status in cognitively healthy older adults.

Comparative habitat use by grazing fishes in a Bornean stream

Habitat use by four grazing fishes in a rainforest stream was determined by direct observation (snorkeling) and microhabitat measurements for individual fish. Significant species heterogeneity (P < 0.004) occurred along two principal component gradients of velocity, depth and substrate and most pairwise species contrasts were significant. Abundant Paracrossochilus acerus (Cyprinidae) occupied the slower, deeper end of the gradient and Gastromyzon punctulatus (Balitoridae) the fast, shallow end with common G. cranbrooki and rare G. aeroides intermediate. However, overlap was substantial and as many as three species grazed on a single rock with no apparent interaction. All species were primarily day-active. Incomplete experiments suggest the fishes rapidly abandon rocks with reduced algal cover. Frequent spates with high discharge, turbidity and bedload movement disturbed the river. Disturbance, rather than biotic interactions, may be the dominant factor in the ecology of these fishes.

The Effectiveness of Parent-Implemented Language Interventions: A Meta-Analysis

The purpose of this meta-analysis was to systematically evaluate the effects of parent-implemented language interventions on the language skills of children between 18 and 60 months of age with primary and secondary language impairments. A systematic literature search yielded 18 studies that met the predetermined inclusion and exclusion criteria. Effect sizes for each study were calculated for 7 language outcome variables and analyzed using a random effects model. Separate analyses were conducted for each language outcome and for each comparison group. Outcomes were compared for children with and without intellectual disabilities and for parent report and direct observational language measures. The results indicate that parent-implemented language interventions have a significant, positive impact on receptive and expressive language skills of children with and without intellectual disabilities. Effect sizes (g) for child measures ranged from -0.15 to 0.82 depending on the outcome measure and comparison group. The results of this review indicate that parent-implemented language interventions are an effective approach to early language intervention for young children with language impairments. Critical features of parent-implemented interventions are discussed in terms of implications for practice and future research.