Direct Methanol Research Articles

Multi-aspect assessment of a novel geothermal-driven polygeneration arrangement using water electrolyzer, methanol synthesis unit, and Goswami cycle

Geothermal energy’s renewable nature with minimal emissions compared to fossil fuels has led to valuable polygeneration models in geothermal-rich regions, promoting energy sustainability. Key challenges include improving integrated structures due to these resources’ low/medium temperature nature and assessing the feasibility of producing essential products (e.g., hydrogen and methanol), typically produced in structures with substantial pollution. The proposed system’s innovations focus on reducing irreversibility through thermal integration, introducing a negative CO2 emission structure, and utilizing CO2 hydrogenation based on geothermal energy for methanol production. Hence, the system encompasses a geothermal power plant, a Goswami cycle, a direct hydrogenation methanol synthesis unit, and a proton exchange membrane electrolyzer. The findings show generating methanol at a rate of 0.85 kg/s, domestic hot water at a rate of 2.231 kg/s, chilled water at a rate of 3.931 kg/s, and electric power at a capacity of 21,530 kW. Hence, the system’s thermal, electrical, and exergy efficiencies are determined to be 7.54 %, 3.87 %, and 47 %, respectively. Furthermore, the sum unit cost of products and the levelized energy cost equal 0.0272 $/GJ and 0.17 $/kWh, correspondingly. Additionally, a net present value of 65.86 M$ and a total yearly cost of 37.52 M$ are the results of the economic assessment. The current research demonstrates a negative CO2 emission from an environmental standpoint. The attainment of negative CO2 emissions is due to using CO2 as input material in the system. Also, the system’s net present value surpasses the total annual cost by 1.75 times, mainly due to its ability to produce products like methanol, generating revenue to offset initial costs. The proposed system is ideal for geothermal energy sites near seawater, promoting environmental preservation by reducing pollutants. Finally, it is suggested that the system’s operation be optimized and an experiential setup be used for future research.

New type nanocomposite based on metal-organic frameworks decorated with nickel nanoparticles as a potent electrocatalyst for methanol oxidation in alkaline media

Methanol oxidation reaction (MOR) is used to provide electrical energy via direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC), which requires a practical design of electrocatalysts to accelerate the sluggish MOR. In this study, we successfully fabricated the carbon black nanoparticles/graphite ceramic electrode (CBNPs/GCE) supported metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) and decorated with nickel nanoparticles (NiNPs) as a new type nanocomposite modified electrode (NiNPs/MOFs/CBNPs/GCE) via a chemical and an electrochemical process, respectively. The surface morphology and structure of the synthesized nanocomposite materials and modified electrodes were characterized using field emission scanning electron microscopy, energy dispersive X-ray analysis, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction and thermogravimetric analysis. Then, the NiNPs/MOFs/CBNPs/GCE was used as a non-platinum electrocatalyst for electrocatalytic oxidation of methanol in alkaline media. The obtained results show the efficient electrocatalytic activity of the NiNPs/MOFs/CBNPs/GCE toward the MOR with high anodic peak current density (Jpa = 34.8 mA cm−2) compared with the other prepared electrocatalysts; MOFs/CCE, NiNPs/CCE, MOFs/CBNPs/GCE, NiNPs/CBNPs/GCE, and NiNPs/MOFs/CCE, due to the synergistic effect of nanocomposite components; NiNPs, MOFs and CBNPs. The prepared electrocatalyst; NiNPs/MOFs/CBNPs/GCE, not only shows a high electrochemically active surface area (ECSA = 2.15 cm2) but also has long-term durability in MOR. In general, it can be said the NiNPs/MOFs/CBNPs/GCE is a promising candidate for application in DMFC.

Experimental analysis on the influence of cathode current-collector open ratio on the performance of an air breathing direct methanol fuel cell (AB-DMFC) with the addition of alkali solution

Experimental analysis on the influence of cathode current-collector open ratio on the performance of an air breathing direct methanol fuel cell (AB-DMFC) with the addition of alkali solution

Velocity (μPIV) and temperature/concentration (μLIF) measurements in a dual serpentine microchannel of a micro DMFC stack

Herein, we present an experimental study of the flow, as well as the thermal and concentration characteristics of two serpentine microchannels, via micro particle image velocity/micro laser induced fluorescence optical visualization techniques, which simulate the flow channels at the anode of a typical micro direct methanol fuel cell stack (two cells: Cell A/B). The flow channel consists of two serpentine microchannels. Each channel has one channel and six paths. Channels A and B were connected by a connecting tube to create an entire flow loop with methanol as the working fluid. The velocity, temperature and concentration distribution along the channel downstream for 5.7 ≤ Re ≤ 594 were visualized and measured. At a particular operation condition of methanol flow rate of 1 ml/min and concentration of 1 M at stack temperature of 25 °C, both in series and parallel arrangements were examined with a peak power density of 61.4 mW/cm2 (current density 120 mA/cm2 and voltage 1.0 V) and of 75 mW/cm2 (current density 120 mA/cm2 and voltage 1.2 V), respectively. CO2 ellipse-like bubbles were found at the up/down stream corners with a definite major/minor axis length. Furthermore, relevant (f, Nu, and Sh) correlations regarding the relationship of the methanol solution pumping power, heat transfer and utilization with Reynolds number in form of power law were developed with 95 % accuracy of experimental data. With these related results, it might be beneficial to the configuration design of the μDMFC stack.

Noble metal clusters substitution in porous Ni substrate renders high mass-specific activities toward oxygen evolution reaction and methanol oxidation reaction

The sluggish reaction kinetics of the oxygen evolution reaction (OER) and methanol oxidation reaction (MOR) remain obstacles to the commercial promotion of water splitting and direct methanol fuel cells. Considering the vital role of noble metals in electrocatalytic activity, this work focuses on the rational synthesis of Ni-noble metal composite nanocatalysts for overcoming the drawbacks of high cost and susceptible oxidized surfaces of noble metals. The inherent catalytic activity is improved by the altered electronic structure and effective active sites of the catalyst induced by the size effect of noble metal clusters. In particular, a series of Ni-noble metal nanocomposites are successfully synthesized by partially introducing noble metal into Ni with porous interfacial defects derived from Ni-Al layered double hydroxide (LDH). The Ni10Pd1 nanocomposite exhibits high OER catalytic activity with an overpotential of 0.279 V at 10 mA/cm2, surpassing Ni10Ag1 and Ni10Au1 counterparts. Furthermore, the average diameter of Pd clusters gradually increases from 5.57 nm to 44.44 nm with the increased proportion of doped Pd, leading to the passivation of catalytic activity due to the exacerbated surface oxidation of Pd in the form of Pd2+. After optimization, Ni10Pd1 delivers significantly enhanced OER and MOR electroactivities and long-term stability compared to that of Ni2Pd1, Ni1Pd1 and Ni1Pd2, which is conducive to the effective utilization of Pd and alleviation of surface oxidation.

Self-healing sulfonated poly(ether ether ketone)/polyvinyl alcohol membrane reinforced with sulfonated silica for direct methanol fuel cell

Nafion, the predominant choice for polymer electrolyte membranes (PEMs) in direct methanol fuel cells (DMFCs), excels in proton conductivity but is plagued by elevated methanol permeability and sustained performance degradation. To address these issues, this study aims to synthesize a self-healable composite membrane composed of sulfonated poly (ether ether ketone), polyvinyl alcohol, and sulfonated silica (S/PVA/S–SiO2). The composite membrane with 3 wt% S–SiO2 demonstrates the highest proton conductivity, thanks to its improved water absorption and increased proton transfer sites. Compared to pure SPEEK, the composite membrane has a 20% lower methanol permeability. With its enhanced selectivity, the S/PVA/S–SiO2 membrane produces a power density of 3.64 mW cm−2 at 26.67 mA cm−2. Furthermore, by virtue of reversible hydrogen bonding, the composite membrane shows exceptional self-healing capabilities, restoring its methanol-blocking function by 83.6%. These results highlight that the S/PVA/S–SiO2 membrane holds promise for DMFC applications.

Optimizing membrane reactor structures for enhanced hydrogen yield in CH4 tri-reforming: Insights from sensitivity analysis and machine learning approaches

This study explores the optimization of membrane reactor configurations to enhance hydrogen production through CH4 tri-reforming. The investigation employs ceramic membranes for oxygen, vapor, and carbon dioxide distribution within the reactor bed. A differential evolution algorithm is utilized alongside cuckoo search algorithm (CSA) and support vector regression (SVR) to determine optimal values for O2/CH4, H2O/CH4, and CO2/CH4 ratios, membrane thickness, and shell pressure, with hydrogen yield as the objective function. Results demonstrate that the oxygen membrane reactor achieves the highest hydrogen yield, reaching 2.02 and 1.75 for direct methanol synthesis and Fischer–Tropsch processes, respectively, representing a 7.98 % and 10.03 % increase compared to the conventional tri-reforming reactor. Furthermore, CSA and SVR emerge as invaluable tools, facilitating robust optimization and predictive modeling. The CSA efficiently navigates complex solution spaces to identify optimal parameters, while SVR accurately models relationships between input variables and hydrogen yield. Incorporating these methodologies enhances the effectiveness of membrane reactor design and synthesis gas production. This study contributes to advancements in clean energy technologies by providing insights into efficient hydrogen production methods using membrane reactors.

Repurposing Co-Fe LDH and Co-Fe LDH/Cellulose micro-adsorbents for sustainable energy generation in direct methanol fuel cells

Spent adsorbents need to be recycled as well as valorized to obtain long-term benefits from the adsorption of contaminants from wastewater. Co-Fe LDH and Co-Fe LDH/cellulose-layered double hydroxide (LDH) were prepared for crystal violet (CV) adsorption. FT-IR, XRD, SEM, TEM, and, zeta potential analyses confirmed the micro-composites. The parameters examined in this study were the initial pH, initial concentration, adsorbent dose, contact time, adsorption isotherm, and adsorption kinetics. The removal percent was 97.5 % and 88 % for Co-Fe LDH and Co-Fe LDH/cellulose, respectively. A maximum adsorption capacity was 69.4 and 50.0 mg g−1 for Co-Fe LDH and Co-Fe LDH/cellulose, respectively, at pH = 9. The Langmuir-Freundlich model can adequately explain the isotherm processes of LDH and LDH/cellulose; R2 was 0.96 and 0.95, respectively. The spent adsorbents (Co-Fe LDH/CV and Co-Fe LDH/Cellulose/CV) were applied once again as catalysts for electro-oxidation in direct-methanol fuel cells. Due to its high stability in the basic medium (NaOH), the waste material was exploited as an active catalyst to support methanol oxidation. It displayed a better efficiency of 74.75 % and a current density of 76 mA/cm2 at 50 mV/s in 1 M methanol for Co-Fe LDH/CV. The suggested technique opens up a completely new channel for reusing waste into high-value materials for application in electrocatalytic energy generation.

Facile Synthesis of PtP2 Nanocrystals as Highly Active Electrocatalysts for Methanol Oxidation.

Although significant efforts have been made in the past few decades, the development of affordable, durable, and effective electrocatalysts for direct methanol fuel cells (DMFCs) remains a formidable challenge. Herein, we present a facile and efficient phosphorization approach for synthesizing PtP2 intermetallic nanocrystals and utilize them as electrocatalysts in the methanol oxidation reaction (MOR). Impressively, the synthesized PtP2 nanocatalysts exhibit a mass activity of 2.14 mA μg-1 and a specific activity of 6.28 mA cm-2, which are 5.1 and 9.5 times higher than those achieved by the current state-of-the-art commercial Pt/C catalyst, respectively. Moreover, the PtP2 nanocatalysts demonstrate improved stability toward acidic MOR by retaining 92.1% of its initial mass activity after undergoing 5000 potential cycles, far surpassing that of the commercial Pt/C (38%). Further DMFC tests present a 2.7 times higher power density than that of the commercial Pt/C, underscoring their potential for application in methanol fuel cells. Density functional theory calculations suggest that the accelerated MOR kinetics and improved CO tolerance on PtP2 can be attributed to the attenuated binding strength of CO intermediates and the enhanced stability due to strong Pt-P interaction. To our knowledge, this is the first report identifying the MOR performance on PtP2 intermetallic nanocrystals, highlighting their potential as highly active and stable nanocatalysts for DMFCs.

The Size and Charge Effect of Pt Cluster on the Electrocatalytic Activity Toward the First Step of Dehydrogenation of Methanol

Abstract The O–H/C–H scission of methanol on Pt clusters is a crucial step in direct methanol fuel cells applications. The first dehydrogenation process of methanol on Ptnq clusters (n = 5, 13, 19; q = 0, +1, −1) in various charge states is studied. Our findings indicate that methanol adsorbs more easily on cationic Ptn+ than on neutral Ptn or anionic Ptn−. However, the adsorption capacity of methanol on Ptnq gradually decreases with increasing cluster size, especially for CH3OH on Ptn+, which decreases significantly (from −57.61 kcal/mol to −16.41 kcal/mol). Compared with Ptn and Ptn+, the energy barrier of O–H/C–H bond cleavage is significantly reduced by injecting an electron into Ptn to form Ptn−, and the activity of the catalyst is improved. However, the energy barrier of O–H/C–H cleavage increases gradually with cluster size, leading to a decrease in catalytic activity. The effect of charge weakens as cluster size increases, and small clusters with injected electrons exhibit better catalytic activity.

Green and sustainable use of macadamia nuts as support material in Pt-based direct methanol fuel cells

The successful commercialization of direct methanol fuel cells (DMFCs) is hindered by inadequate methanol oxidation activity and anode catalyst longevity. Efficient and cost-effective electrode materials are imperative in the widespread use of DMFCs. While Platinum (Pt) remains the primary component of anodic methanol oxidation reaction (MOR) electrocatalysts, its utilization alone in DMFC systems is limited due to carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning, instability, methanol crossover, and high cost. These limitations impede the economic feasibility of Pt as an electrocatalyst. Herein, we present the use of powdered activated carbon (PAC) and granular activated carbon (GAC), both sourced from macadamia nut shells (MNS), a type of biomass. These bio-based carbon materials are integrated into hybrid supports with reduced graphene oxide (rGO), aiming to enhance the performance and reduce the production cost of the Pt electrocatalyst. Electrochemical and physicochemical characterizations of the synthesized catalysts, including Pt-rGO/PAC-1:1, Pt-rGO/PAC-1:2, Pt-rGO/GAC-1:1, and Pt-rGO/GAC-1:2, were conducted. X-ray diffraction analysis revealed crystallite sizes ranging from 1.18 nm to 1.68 nm. High-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) images with average particle sizes ranging from 1.91 nm to 2.72 nm demonstrated spherical dispersion of Pt nanoparticles with some agglomeration across all catalysts. The electrochemical active surface area (ECSA) was determined, with Pt-rGO/GAC-1:1 exhibiting the highest ECSA of 73.53 m2 g−1. Despite its high ECSA, Pt-rGO/GAC-1:1 displayed the lowest methanol oxidation reaction (MOR) current density, indicating active sites with poor catalytic efficiency. Pt-rGO/PAC-1:1 and Pt-rGO/PAC-1:2 exhibited the highest MOR current densities of 0.77 mA*cm−2 and 0.74 mA*cm−2, respectively. Moreover, Pt-rGO/PAC-1:2 and Pt-rGO/PAC-1:1 demonstrated superior electrocatalytic mass (specific) activities of 7.55 mA/mg (0.025 mA*cm−2) and 7.25 mA/mg (0.021 mA*cm−2), respectively. Chronoamperometry tests revealed Pt-rGO/PAC-1:2 and Pt-rGO/PAC-1:1 as the most stable catalysts. Additionally, they exhibited the lowest charge transfer resistances and highest MOR current densities after durability tests, highlighting their potential for DMFC applications. The synthesized Pt supported on PACs hybrids demonstrated remarkable catalytic performance, stability, and CO tolerance, highlighting their potential for enhancing DMFC efficiency.

Evaluation of Distillery Fractions in Direct Methanol Fuel Cells and Screening of Reaction Products

Fuel cells represent an appealing avenue for harnessing eco-friendly energy. While their fuel supply traditionally stems from water electrolysis, an environmentally conscious approach also involves utilizing low-weight alcohols like methanol and ethanol. These alcohols, concentrated from sustainable sources within the enological by-product distillation process, offer a noteworthy contribution to the circular economy. This study delved into evaluating the efficacy of distillery fractions in powering methanol fuel cells. Beyond their energy-generation potential, the performed GC-MS analysis unveiled appreciable quantities of acetic acid resulting from the partial oxidation of ethanol. This revelation opens the door to intriguing possibilities, including the recovery and repurposing of novel compounds such as short-chain fatty acids (predominantly acetic acid), ketones, and aldehydes—establishing a link between sustainable energy production and the emergence of valuable by-product applications.

Constructing Zn-based MOF-MXene nanoarchitectures to stabilize ultrafine Pt nanocrystals with enhanced methanol oxidation performance

Although the development of direct methanol fuel cell technology is regarded as one rational option to against severe energy crises and environmental pollution, the low efficiency and considerable costs of current Pt-based anode catalysts largely impede the broad-scale commercialization. Herein, a convenient bottom-up approach is developed to the spatial construction of ultrafine Pt nanocrystals stabilized on a porous heterojunction matrix built from Zn-based metal organic frameworks and Ti3C2Tx MXene nanolamellas (Pt/ZIF-Ti3C2Tx) through the stepwise solvothermal reactions. The intercalation of metal organic frameworks produces plentiful cavities and channels for the dispersion and immobilization of small-sized Pt nanoparticles, while the incorporation of Ti3C2Tx nanosheets optimizes the Pt electronic structure and ensures a high electron conductivity. As a consequence, the as-acquired Pt/ZIF-Ti3C2Tx nanoarchitectures manifest exceptional electrocatalytic methanol oxidation abilities in terms of a large electrochemically active surface area of 110.5 m2 g−1, a high mass activity of 1900.1 mA mg−1, and preferable long-term stability, all of which are significantly superior to those of conventional Pt/carbon and Pt/unmodified Ti3C2Tx catalysts.

Proton exchange membranes based on sulfonated polybutylene fumarate: Preparation and characterization

AbstractBased on a novel unsaturated polyester, polybutylene fumarate (PBF), a series of sulfonated proton exchange membranes were prepared and characterized for direct methanol fuel cell application. In this work, PBF underwent sulfonation at different degrees, and the optimum degree of sulfonation (DS) was identified by assessing the hydrolytic stability. In the second step, an effective strategy to enhance the membranes' proton conductivity was adopted by the addition of the 2‐(1H‐Imidazol‐2‐yl) acetic acid (Im‐COOH) compound as a proton‐conducting agent to the sulfonated PBF (SPBF) matrix with the optimum DS. The results unveiled significant alterations in the physicochemical properties of PBF due to sulfonation, including an elevation in water uptake and the glass transition temperature (Tg), accompanied by the disappearance of the crystallinity within SPBF. In terms of electrochemical characteristics, the SPBF‐17.5 PEM demonstrated a proton conductivity of 3.36 × 10−3 S cm−1 and a methanol permeability of 1.068 × 10−7 cm2 s−1, yielding a selectivity of approximately 31,460 S s cm−3. Furthermore, the attractive interactions between SO3H and NH groups further elevated proton conductivity to 4.12 × 10−3 S cm−1, accompanied by a decrease in methanol permeability to 0.942 × 10−7 cm2 s−1, enhancing the selectivity parameter to 43,736 S s cm−3.

Ornated hydrangea-like M-MO/graphitic porous carbon derived via direct carbonization of MOFs for electrooxidation of methanol in alkaline DMFC

Due to their low operating temperature, ease of storage, transportation, and low greenhouse gas emissions, direct methanol fuel cells (DMFC) are considered the best choice of fuel cells for energy conversion. Although its theoretical thermodynamic energy conversion efficiency is ~97 %, its achievable energy conversion efficiency is still in the range of 30–40 %. To improve the reaction kinetics, it is important to look for an electrocatalyst with low cost and high efficiency. In the present study, direct carbonization of [Ni, Cu, and (Ni/Cu)] metal-organic framework (MOF) was carried out under a nitrogen gas flow at 800 °C for 2.5 h, where the MOF precursor was completely converted into graphitic porous carbon well ornamented with Metal/Metal oxides (M/MO). The as-prepared nanomaterials were characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray photoelectric spectroscopy (XPS), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), and the Brunauer–Emmett–Teller technique (BET). The prepared materials were used as electrocatalysts in a methanol oxidation reaction solution in an alkaline solution. The cyclic voltammetry (CV) measurements for Ni-MOF, Cu-MOF, (Ni/Cu) MOF, Ni-MOF800, Cu-MOF800, and (Ni/Cu)MOF800 showed excellent current densities of 17, 1.05, 44.25, 30, 11.56, and 53 mA∙cm−2, respectively at 0.6 V with a scan rate of 50 mV∙s−1. Whereas, the retention percent value is (96.2 %) for Ni-MOF, (93.1 %) for (Ni/Cu) MOF800, (96.7 %) for (Ni/Cu) MOF, (87.5 %) for Ni-MOF800, (97 %) for Cu-MOF, and (50.2 %) for Cu-MOF800 after an hour. Since M/MO/C800 demonstrated remarkable catalytic activity in relation to methanol oxidation and an abundance of cheap value, it is regarded as a promising candidate for future electrooxidation catalysis of MeOH in direct methanol fuel cells (DMFCs).

Investigating the Impact of Methanol Concentration and Implementation of a Coefficient Diagram-Based Control System for Direct Methanol Fuel Cell Operation

Investigating the Impact of Methanol Concentration and Implementation of a Coefficient Diagram-Based Control System for Direct Methanol Fuel Cell Operation

Ultrasonic synthesis of borophene as a 2D electrode material with high electrocatalytic activity for use in fuel cell applications

Green energy systems must be able to provide a significant proportion of the energy needed to meet the ever-increasing demand for energy. Fuel cells are a promising solution to bridge the gap in the green energy transition. This study aims to enhance the energy efficiency of fuel cells by utilizing 2D supported nanocatalysts in the anode compartment. Borophene was synthesized using the liquid phase exfoliation method to be used as a support structure due to its superior properties. To use borophene as a supporting material in methanol fuel cells, a borophene-palladium hybrid structure (Pd@Borophene) was prepared using the chemical reduction method. The scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images showed that the obtained particle had a partially formed layered structure. The electrocatalytic activity of the Pd@Borophene was investigated through anodic reactions in Direct Methanol Alcohol Fuel Cells (DMFC). Electrochemical analyses were conducted to compare the effect of borophene on Pd and Pd@borophene nanocatalysts on the anodic reaction. The anodic peak current value of methanol oxidation for Pd@borophene was found to be 24.3 mA/cm2, which is approximately four times higher than that of unsupported Pd nanoparticles. Additionally, the ratio of forward current (If) to reverse current (Ib), which serves as an indicator of catalyst poisoning, was determined to be 2.27. This study contributes significant findings to the literature by demonstrating that borophene, an advanced 2D material, can be synthesized using a low-cost liquid phase exfoliation method and can be utilized in fuel cell applications for energy generation.

A review of advancements in commercial and non-commercial Nafion-based proton exchange membranes for direct methanol fuel cells

A review of advancements in commercial and non-commercial Nafion-based proton exchange membranes for direct methanol fuel cells

Lutetium-Induced Ultrafine PtRu Nanoclusters with a High Electrochemical Surface Area for Direct Methanol Fuel Cells at Alleviated Temperatures.

PtRu alloys have been recognized as the state-of-the-art catalysts for the methanol oxidation reaction (MOR) in direct methanol fuel cells (DMFCs). However, their applications in DMFCs are still less efficient in terms of both catalytic activity and durability. Rare earth (RE) metals have been recognized as attractive elements to tune the catalytic activity, while it is still a world-class challenge to synthesize well-dispersed Pt-RE alloys. Herein, we developed a novel hydrogen-assisted magnesiothermic reduction strategy to prepare a highly dispersed carbon-supported lutetium-doped PtRu catalyst with ultrafine nanoclusters and atomically dispersed Ru sites. The PtRuLu catalyst shows an outstanding high electrochemical surface area (ECSA) of 239.0 m2 gPt-1 and delivers an optimized MOR mass activity and specific activity of 632.5 mA mgPt-1 and 26 A cmPt-2 at 0.4 V vs saturated calomel electrode (SCE), which are 3.6 and 3.5 times of commercial PtRu-JM and an order higher than PtLu, respectively. These novel catalysts have been demonstrated in a high-temperature direct methanol fuel cell running in a temperature range of 180-240 °C, achieving a maximum power density of 314.3 mW cm-2. The AC-STEM imaging, in situ ATR-IR spectroscopy, and DFT calculations disclose that the high performance is resulted from the highly dispersed PtRuLu nanoclusters and the synergistic effect of the atomically dispersed Ru sites with PtRuLu nanoclusters, which significantly reduces the CO* intermediates coverage due to the promoted water activation to form the OH* to facilitate the CO* removal.

A comprehensive review on different types of fuel cell and its applications

This review article provides an overview of various types of fuel cells that are currently being researched and developed. Fuel cells are electrochemical devices that convert chemical energy directly into electrical energy, making them a promising technology for clean and efficient energy production. The review covers the principles of operation and key characteristics of proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs), solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs), alkaline fuel cells (AFCs), direct methanol fuel cells (DMFCs), and microbial fuel cells (MFCs). The article also discusses the advantages and limitations of each type of fuel cell, as well as the current research and development efforts aimed at improving their performance and reducing their costs. Overall, this review provides a comprehensive understanding of the various types of fuel cells and their potential applications in the field of energy production.