Order Diptera Research Articles

Diversity and Relative Abundance of Insect Visitors of Litchi (Litchi chinensis Sonn.) at Baisjagar, Tanahun, Nepal

Litchi (Litchi chinensis Sonn.) is a highly cross-pollinated plant, and the identification of insect visitors is critical for enhancing its production. A study was conducted in Baisjagar, Tanahun, Nepal, from March to April 2023 to assess the diversity and relative abundance of insect visitors to Litchi trees. The experiment involved the use of yellow sticky traps placed on five different Litchi trees, with two traps installed per tree on branches near the panicles. Readings were taken weekly over four weeks. A total of eighteen insect species from six orders and thirteen families were identified during the study. Among the recorded insects, the order Diptera was the most abundant, accounting for 51.12% of the total, and was represented by five families: Syrphidae, Sarcophagidae, Calliphoridae, Muscidae, and Tachinidae. This was followed by Hymenoptera (32.02%), Hemiptera (12.54%), Lepidoptera (2.24%), Coleoptera (1.31%), and Orthoptera (0.74%). The species Apis cerana was the most frequently recorded, with 108 individuals captured. The study highlights the importance of pollinators, particularly Diptera and Hymenoptera, in Litchi production. Effective management and conservation of these pollinating insects can help ensure successful pollination and fruit production. Additionally, integrating apiculture with Litchi farming can enhance pollination services and provide mutual benefits, increasing yields and economic returns for farmers. This study suggested the need for sustainable practices to protect insect diversity in agricultural ecosystems.

Measurement of the Direct Impact of Hematophagous Flies on Feeder Cattle: An Unexpectedly High Potential Economic Impact.

In addition to blood pathogen transmission, insects of the order Diptera affect livestock through visual and contact harassment; blood-feeders are responsible for painful bites and blood despoliation, generating behavioral modifications, anemia, and production losses. Knowledge of their economic impact is a basis for cost-effective control. Here, we measured the global impact of diptera insects by comparing two batches of six feeder cattle, one in the open air and the other protected by a mosquito net. The analytical data were insect density in the open air and, for feeder cattle, tail flick counts, hematocrit values (Ht), feed intake, feed conversion ratio (FCR), and live body weight gain (LBWG). Over a period of five months, the results showed significant losses in the LBWG of cattle exposed to insects, estimated at 8.0 ± 1.5 kg/month [2.7; 13.3], with a total loss reaching 40.0 ± 5.5 kg/head. Main diurnal insects were Stomoxys spp. and Musca crassirostris. There was a strong correlation between fly density and diurnal tail flicks. Night trapping and tail flicks showed a potentially important role of mosquitoes to be further explored. The Ht levels of exposed animals were 3-4% lower than those of controls. FCRs indicated that exposed animals needed 33% more dry matter intake/kg of LBWG. An economic assessment showed that dipterans were responsible for a 10-11% loss in LBWG during the main growing period of feeder cattle (10-15 months). A feedlot of 100 calves would register a total loss of USD 16,000 within 5 months, which appears to be an unexpectedly huge loss caused by dipterans. Investing part of this money into fly control would probably be beneficial.

Pollination ecology of Dracula erythrochaete (Orchidaceae): brood-site imitation or food deception?

Abstract Pleurothallidinae is the most diverse Neotropical subtribe in Orchidaceae and is almost exclusively pollinated by insects of the order Diptera. Dracula, a genus of 138 species in the Pleurothallidinae, is known to attract Zygothrica (Drosophilidae) flies, common macrofungi visitors, by imitating fungal volatile compounds and lamellae. Interestingly, Dracula orchids do not appear to offer any rewards to their floral visitors. While brood-site imitation of macrofungi has been suggested as their pollination system, the exact behaviour of flies during their extended visits to the orchid flowers has yet to be confirmed. In this study, we document the pollination mechanism of Dracula erythrochaete. We characterize the floral structures involved in the mechanism using anatomical and morphological evidence. Additionally, through in situ observations and camera recordings, we describe the insect behaviour. We show that flowers of D. erythrochaete share the same group of visitors as nearby macrofungi, including different Zygothrica species, seven of which were determined as effective pollinators. Male and female flies were attracted to the flowers and displayed feeding behaviour. Accordingly, proteins were detected in high concentrations on the papillae at the base of the movable lip and in papillary trichomes of the sepals, near the column. The concept of brood-site imitation is debated, as no oviposition events were observed and no eggs were found on the flowers. Therefore, a mixed strategy of congregation/brood-site imitation and food reward is proposed for pollination.

Nutritional Value of the Larvae of the Black Soldier Fly (Hermetia illucens) and the House Fly (Musca domestica) as a Food Alternative for Farm Animals-A Systematic Review.

Dietary alternatives using insect-based products as an alternative for farm animal nutrition have been the object of study due to the high nutritional value of these feeds and the costs related to both their production and consequently their commercialization. Thus, the use of flies, especially larvae, has a high content of proteins and lipids (fat), as well as minerals and essential nutrients for development and growth, directly impacting the production of these animals, whether meat or milk. Therefore, the objective of this study was to compile data from the literature on the nutritional value of adults and larvae of Black soldier (Hermetia illucens) and housefly (Musca domestica) as a dietary alternative for animal feed. The Prisma checklist was used. After reviewing the data found in the literature, following the systematic review, it was noted that studies emerge that larvae of black soldier flies and domestic flies of the order Diptera obtain essential sources in the nutrition of ruminants, in addition to obtaining rapid digestibility, thus adhering to reproduction with high nutritional content, due to incident levels of protein, lipids, and minerals in M. domestica and Lucilia sericata, making it a target for inclusion in the diet of farm animals. In addition, it is concluded that both species are studied for their sustainable potential as well as for offering greater economic and nutritional viability when compared to ingredients present in production animal feed.

Flies tune the activity of their multifunctional gyroscope

Members of the order Diptera, the true flies, are among the most maneuverable flying animals. These aerial capabilities are partially attributed to flies' possession of halteres, tiny club-shaped structures that evolved from the hindwings and play a crucial role in flight control. Halteres are renowned for acting as biological gyroscopes that rapidly detect rotational perturbations and help flies maintain a stable flight posture. Additionally, halteres provide rhythmic input to the wing steering system that can be indirectly modulated by the visual system. The multifunctional capacity of the haltere is thought to depend on arrays of embedded mechanosensors called campaniform sensilla that are arranged in distinct groups on the haltere's dorsal and ventral surfaces. Although longstanding hypotheses suggest that each array provides different information relevant to the flight control circuitry, we know little about how the haltere campaniforms are functionally organized. Here, we use invivo calcium imaging during tethered flight to obtain population-level recordings of the haltere sensory afferents in specific fields of sensilla. We find that haltere feedback from both dorsal fields is continuously active, modulated under closed-loop flight conditions, and recruited during saccades to help flies actively maneuver. We also find that the haltere's multifaceted role may arise from the steering muscles of the haltere itself, regulating haltere stroke amplitude to modulate campaniform activity. Taken together, our results underscore the crucial role of efferent control in regulating sensor activity and provide insight into how the sensory and motor systems of flies coevolved.

Impact of Selected Pesticides on the Population of Leaf Miners on Chinese Celery, Apium graveolens var. secalinum

In Malaysia, leaf miners, primarily from the Diptera order and Agromyzidae family, are significant agricultural pests that cause extensive damage to a wide range of crops. This study evaluates the efficacy of two insecticides, deltamethrin and cyromazine, in managing leaf miner populations on Chinese celery, Apium graveolens var. secalinum, in the Cameron Highlands. Utilizing a completely randomized design (CRD) approach, the research measured the impact of these pesticides on the pests' larval and pupal development stages. The field trials were conducted on an experimental plot in Habu, Ringlet, where treatments included three concentrations of cyromazine and a standard concentration of deltamethrin, with water serving as a control. Data collection methods combined direct and indirect observational techniques, including the use of Yellow Sticky Traps (YST) for adult activity and detailed leaf examinations for larval and pupal stages. Statistical analysis was performed using the Henderson-Tilton formula to assess the reduction in pest populations. Results indicated that deltamethrin significantly reduced leaf miner activity, demonstrating a 35.2% decrease in leaf mining and a 47.5% reduction in pupal emergence, confirming its immediate effectiveness. Conversely, cyromazine showed a gradual impact, significantly disrupting larval to pupal transition, with the highest dose achieving a 17.9% reduction in pupal emergence. This study highlights the differential impacts of these pesticides and contributes valuable insights into effective pest management strategies in tropical agriculture.

Diversity and abundance of insects associated with two accessions of golden melon (Cucumis melo L.)

This study aims to give fundamental details regarding the diversity and abundance of insects associated with two accessions of Golden melon (Cucumis melo L). There were 1,058 (1,058) different specimens gathered. These insects belong to 7 different Orders (Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, Orthoptera, Diptera, Dictyoptera, Hemiptera, and Hymenoptera) and 22 different (Acrididae, Alydidae, Apidae, Braconidae, Calliphoridae, Chrysomelidae, Coccinellidae, Erotylidae, Formicdae, Gryllidae, Mantidae, Muscidae, Pentatomidae, Pieridae, Reduviidae, Sacrophidae, Scarabaiedae, Scutelleridae, Tachinidae, Tenebrionidae, Tettigonidae and Vespidae). Majority of the insect predators belong to the Formicidae family. Golden melon beds were sampled for insects every 10 weeks from the second week after sowing. Every week, sampling was carried out between 7:00 and 9:00 in the morning using a sweep net, a pitfall, and handpicking. As a result, this knowledge will aid in understanding the various insect pests that affect golden melon (Cucumis melo) systems

Octanoic acid kills Lucilia sericata (Diptera: Calliphoridae) by affecting two major defence systems: cuticular free fatty acids and immunocompetent cells

This work examines the insecticidal activity of octanoic acid (C8:0), a short-chain fatty acid detected in entomopathogenic fungus – Conidiobolus coronatus medium, against Lucilia sericata larvae and adults. The LD50 value was calculated as 3.04±0.26 µg/mg (3040 mg/kg) of insect body mass, which places the compound in category 5 of acute toxicity (slightly hazardous). The presented research also describes its probable mechanism, with a particular focus on changes in two main insect defense mechanisms: (1) the composition of the cuticle (GC–MS analysis) and (2) immunocompetent cells (microscopic analysis of cultured hemocytes). More precisely, octanoic acid application resulted in changes in cuticular free fatty acid (FFA) profiles in both adults and larvae; generally, treatment increased short-chain FFAs, and a decrease of middle- and long-chain FFAs. Both in vivo and in vitro applications of octanoic acid resulted in vacuolisation, disintegration, and destruction of nets formed by plasmatocytes. As the compound has also previously been found to be toxic against Galleria mellonella, it appears to have lethal potential against insects in both the Orders Diptera and Lepidoptera, indicating it may have strong entomopathogenic potential. It is worth noting that octanoic acid is approved as a food additive with well-documented insecticidal activity, and hence may be a valuable component in the design of new insecticides that are safe for both humans and the environment.

Study of Population Dynamics of Syrphid Fly (Order- Diptera, Family- Syrphidae) in ITM University Gwalior, India

An intriguing ecological interaction can exist between aphids and Syrphid flies, particularly in the setting of millet crops. Aphids (Order Hemiptera: Family Aphididae) are a problem variety of crops, including all types of millets. Syrphid flies (Order Diptera: Family Syrphidae) naturally prey on aphids when they are in their larval stage. Syrphid fly larvae are referred to as "aphid lions" or "hoverfly larvae." Aphids are the main source of food for these larvae, and they manage the aphid population in millet crops. Therefore, Syrphids are used as natural enemies and biological control agents and syrphid flies are advantageous insects in agriculture. The present study was conducted in the month of August 2021 to March 2022 (summer and winter season) to find out the population dynamic of syrphid flies in agricultural farms and the campus of ITM University. The target crops like maize, sorghum, pearl millets, okra, mustard crop, cabbage cauliflower, marigold and brinjal were tagged and marked and Syrphid fly larvae and pupa were counted four times in a month. The larvae and pupa were also collected and kept for adult emergence. The maximum number of larvae were collected from the Turari campus and were as a minimum found in CRC 2. The other predator like lady bird beetles were also observed but their population was very minor. The population of syrphid flies and larvae depends on the climatic conditions and the availability of foods and their prey.

Eksplorasi dan Deskripsi dan Kunci Determinasi Musuh Alami Hama Kutu Kepik (Vatiga illudens Drake 1922) (Hemiptera: Tingidae) dari Pertanaman Singkong (Manihot esculenta) di Kabupaten Banyumas, Provinsi Jawa Tengah

The invasion of the ladybug (Vatiga illudens) has started a new chapter in Indonesia, with the first report of this pest in East Java Province in 2021. As a pest that attacks cassava plants, this pest is a threat to cassava plantations, one of which is in Banyumas District, Central Java Province. It is necessary to identify potential natural enemies that can become biological agents that suppress pest populations in the field and insects associated with cassava cultivations to control the pest and anticipate losses due to decreased production of cassava plants in the Banyumas District. This study aimed to explore and describe the natural enemies of ladybug pests and insects associated with cassava cultivations in the Banyumas District. The research was conducted in September 2022-January 2023 in seven cassava cultivation locations in Banyumas District. Samples of pests and or natural enemies were collected using a purposive random sampling method. The results showed a community of potential natural enemies of V. illudens and insects associated with cassava cultivations from the Orders Hemiptera, Diptera, Orthoptera, Coleoptera, and Araneae. The Results showed that 15 species act as potential natural enemies, eight species as pests, and two species as none of them (neutral).

Species Richness and Diversity of Insects in an Argo-ecosystem in Bhabar Region of Uttarakhand

The aim of the presented study was to estimate the species richness and diversity of insects were investigated in an agro-ecosystem in Bhabar region of Uttarakhand. In total, 992 individuals were collected representing 7 orders (Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, Hemiptera, Hymenoptera, Orthoptera, Diptera and Odonata), 30 families and 91 species that included herbivores, predators, omnivores and saprophages. The most dominant order was Lepidoptera with a relative abundance of (46.15%) and, the least was Diptera (6.59%). The five most abundant families by numbers of individuals were Pieridae (14.8%), Nymphalidae (13.9%), Lycaenidae (6.1%), Papilionidae (5.9%), and Libellulidae (5.4%). The five most diverse families by species were Nymphalidae (13), Pieridae (9), Lycaenidae (8), Papilionidae (7), and Libellulidae (6). The diversity index showed significant Diversity (Hʹ=1.832), Evenness (E=0.9449) and Margalef species richness (d=2.076) of insect fauna. Diversity indices of insect orders showed that Lepidoptera was the most diverse (Hʹ=1.641), Dipterans had highest Evenness (E=0.9449), and Coleopterans had the maximum species richness as per Margalef’s Index (d=2.056). There were 720 individuals of insect pollinators visitors were observed, which belonged to 62 species in 4 orders (Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, and Hemiptera).

Keanekaragaman Serangga Musuh Alami Pada Pertanaman Kakao Di Kecamatan Leihitu Kabupaten Maluku Tengah

The research aims to identify the types of natural enemy insects of cocoa fruit borer pests and analyze the diversity index and calculate the index of dominance of natural enemy insects in cocoa cultivation (Theobroma cacao L.) in Mamala and Hila Villages, Leihitu district, Central Maluku regency. Random sample method with sampling techniques with certain criteria (cocoa plants that have borne fruit). Each village was taken 3 farmers then each farmer determined 3 sample plots with a plot size of 20 x 20 m2 then determined 3 sample crops. Insect catching uses 4 traps namely sweep net, pit fall traps, yellow traps, and leaf traps. The dataanalyzed in the form of qualitative data is the type of insects found and quantitative data, namely the diversity index and the dominance index. Based on the results of the study obtained the results of the study obtained 5 orders and 9 Families that have the potential as natural enemies, namely the Order Hymenoptera, Dermaptera, Ortopthera, Diptera and Ordo Coleoptera while the Families found are the Family Formicidae, Chelisochidae, Carcinophoridae, Forficulidae, Mantidae, Dolichopodidae, Stratiomydae, Coccinelidae, and the Family Chrysomelidae. The natural enemy diversity index in mamala village cocoa plantation (0.0771) and Hila (0.0884) is low and the dominance index in Mamala (0.97600557) and Hila (0.97362747) is high

The most remarkable migrants-systematic analysis of the Western European insect flyway at a Pyrenean mountain pass.

In autumn 1950 David and Elizabeth Lack chanced upon a huge migration of insects and birds flying through the Pyrenean Pass of Bujaruelo, from France into Spain, later describing the spectacle as combining both grandeur and novelty. The intervening years have seen many changes to land use and climate, posing the question as to the current status of this migratory phenomenon. In addition, a lack of quantitative data has prevented insights into the ecological impact of this mass insect migration and the factors that may influence it. To address this, we revisited the site in autumn over a 4 year period and systematically monitored abundance and species composition of diurnal insect migrants. We estimate an annual mean of 17.1 million day-flying insect migrants from five orders (Diptera, Hymenoptera, Hemiptera, Lepidoptera and Odonata) moving south, with observations of southward 'mass migration' events associated with warmer temperatures, the presence of a headwind, sunlight, low windspeed and low rainfall. Diptera dominated the migratory assemblage, and annual numbers varied by more than fourfold. Numbers at this single site hint at the likely billions of insects crossing the entire Pyrenean mountain range each year, and we highlight the importance of this route for seasonal insect migrants.

Update on Chitin and Chitosan from Insects: Sources, Production, Characterization, and Biomedical Applications.

Insects, renowned for their abundant and renewable biomass, stand at the forefront of biomimicry-inspired research and offer promising alternatives for chitin and chitosan production considering mounting environmental concerns and the inherent limitations of conventional sources. This comprehensive review provides a meticulous exploration of the current state of insect-derived chitin and chitosan, focusing on their sources, production methods, characterization, physical and chemical properties, and emerging biomedical applications. Abundant insect sources of chitin and chitosan, from the Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, Orthoptera, Hymenoptera, Diptera, Hemiptera, Dictyoptera, Odonata, and Ephemeroptera orders, were comprehensively summarized. A variety of characterization techniques, including spectroscopy, chromatography, and microscopy, were used to reveal their physical and chemical properties like molecular weight, degree of deacetylation, and crystallinity, laying a solid foundation for their wide application, especially for the biomimetic design process. The examination of insect-derived chitin and chitosan extends into a wide realm of biomedical applications, highlighting their unique advantages in wound healing, tissue engineering, drug delivery, and antimicrobial therapies. Their intrinsic biocompatibility and antimicrobial properties position them as promising candidates for innovative solutions in diverse medical interventions.

Cedrelinga catenaeformis (Tornillo) in natural and agroforestry systems: Dendrometry, soil and macrofauna

Agroforestry and protected areas are alternatives to mitigate the adverse impacts generated by human activities in the tropical forests of the Peruvian Amazon. The aim of this study was to determine the influence of natural and agroforestry systems of Cedrilinga catenaeformis (Tornillo) on soil properties. The physical, chemical, and soil macrofauna properties, as well as dendrometric variables of Tornillo aged 140 and 180 years in natural systems and 7, 17 and 37 years in agroforestry systems, were examined. Results revealed variability in soil properties depending on their origin; however, no marked differences were observed due to tree age or natural versus agroforestry condition. Regarding soil macrofauna, greater diversity was noted in the older agroforestry system, while dendrometric variables exhibited a sigmoidal behavior, except for wood volume, which showed a linear increase. Agroforestry systems of Tornillo associated with Centrosema macrocarpum (Centrosema) maintain soil properties similarly compared to natural systems; however, the soil of the oldest agroforestry system showed higher activity of earthworms Rhinodrilus lavellei, Rhinodrilus pashanasii, Diptera orders, and Julidae, compared to soils of more recent agroforestry systems and natural systems. It was estimated that dendrometric variables of Tornillo show stagnation in the increase of total height at 150 years, commercial height at 165 years, and DBH at 70 years. Meanwhile, total height and DBH showed very strong and strong positive correlations (p < 0.05) with soil N content and CEC in agroforestry systems with 17 and 37 years. Estimating dendrometric variables and understanding the nutritional requirements in the growth and development of Tornillo will contribute to its more effective management in natural and agroforestry ecosystems in the Amazon region.

Orbital myiasis

Myiasis is a parasitic disease caused by fly larvae of the Diptera order that infest humans and other vertebrates. Orbital myiasis is a potentially destructive infestation of the orbital tissues. We present a case of orbital myiasis in a 34-year-old male with a 4-day history of foreign body sensation, pain, and bloody discharge from his right eye. On examination, a necrosed, gaping wound of approximately 7 cm × 2 cm was present under the right eye. The wound was infested with larvae, eyelids were swollen, and conjunctival congestion and discharge were present. The larvae were removed using turpentine oil, and the wound was debrided and treated with hydroheal AM gel regularly for 1 week. A systemic antibiotic and topical antibiotic-steroid combination was given. After 1 week of treatment, the best-corrected visual acuity in both his eyes was 6/6, and anterior and posterior segment findings were normal; a computed tomography scan was also normal. The wound healed with secondary intention.

Evaluation of insect pollinator activity on fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) in district Peshawar

The present study was conducted to record the population density of insect pollinators visiting fennel crop at Agricultural Research Institute (ARI), Tarnab, Peshawar during 2020-21. Study was laid out in Randomized Complete Block Design. Data was collected alternate day at two distinct time frames: morning and evening. It was observed that ten insect pollinators visited fennel crop during during the flowering season of fennel crop at mentioned time frames. Total of 10 Species were recorded from the expermintal plots including Apis cerana, A. mellifera, A. dorsata, A. florea, Polistes olivaceus, Earistalis tenax, Eupeodis bacculatus, Pieris brassica, Zizina otis and Coccinella septumpunctata. Order Hymenoptera was the most recorded order or insects with 5 species followed by 2 species each from order Lepidoptera and Diptera while 1 species was reported from order Coleoptera. Highest density of insect pollinators (50.4 and 42.2) in both morning and evening were recorded for A. mellifera whereas the lowest numbers of insect pollinators (3.8 and 2) were recorded for Z. Otis.

Scuttle fly Megaselia scalaris (Loew) (Diptera: Phoridae) endoparasitoid as a novel biocontrol agent against adult American cockroaches (Periplaneta americana)

The American cockroach, Periplaneta americana (Linnaeus, 1758) (Blattodea: Blattidae), is one of the most common pests that thrive in diverse environments and carries various pathogens, causing critical threats to public health and the ecosystem. We thus report in this study the first observation of decapitated American cockroaches as a result of infestation with scuttle fly parasitoids. Interestingly, behavioral alterations in the form of zombification-like behavior could be observed in cockroaches reared in the laboratory before being decapitated, implying that the insect targets cockroach heads. To identify this parasitoid, cockroaches’ corpora were isolated in jars, and apodous larvae were observed. Larvae developed into small coarctate pupae, and adults emerged. The scuttle flies were collected and exhibited tiny black, brown, to yellowish bodies. The fly was initially identified based on its morphological properties as a member of the order Diptera, family Phoridae. To provide further insights into the morphological attributes of the phorid species, the fly was examined using a scanning electron microscope (SEM) and then identified as Megaselia scalaris accordingly. SEM analysis revealed the distinctive structure of M. scalaris concerning the head, mouth parts, and legs. Specifically, the mouth parts include the labrum, labellum, rostrum, and maxillary palps. Although further investigations are still required to understand the complicated relationships between M. scalaris and American cockroaches, our findings provide a prominent step in the control of American cockroaches using M. scalaris as an efficient biological control agent.

Shared Features Underlying Compact Genomes and Extreme Habitat Use in Chironomid Midges.

Nonbiting midges (family Chironomidae) are found throughout the world in a diverse array of aquatic and terrestrial habitats, can often tolerate harsh conditions such as hypoxia or desiccation, and have consistently compact genomes. Yet we know little about the shared molecular basis for these attributes and how they have evolved across the family. Here, we address these questions by first creating high-quality, annotated reference assemblies for Tanytarsus gracilentus (subfamily Chironominae, tribe Tanytarsini) and Parochlus steinenii (subfamily Podonominae). Using these and other publicly available assemblies, we created a time-calibrated phylogenomic tree for family Chironomidae with outgroups from order Diptera. We used this phylogeny to test for features associated with compact genomes, as well as examining patterns of gene family evolution and positive selection that may underlie chironomid habitat tolerances. Our results suggest that compact genomes evolved in the common ancestor of Chironomidae and Ceratopogonidae and that this occurred mainly through reductions in noncoding regions (introns, intergenic sequences, and repeat elements). Significantly expanded gene families in Chironomidae included biological processes that may relate to tolerance of stressful environments, such as temperature homeostasis, carbohydrate transport, melanization defense response, and trehalose transport. We identified several positively selected genes in Chironomidae, notably sulfonylurea receptor, CREB-binding protein, and protein kinase D. Our results improve our understanding of the evolution of small genomes and extreme habitat use in this widely distributed group.

Revelations from Comparative Mitochondrial Genome Analysis in Four Orders of Class Insecta

The largest and most diverse group of organisms in the animal kingdom are insects. Molecular markers are powerful tools that can tackle a wide range of insect ecological research issues. These provide a more effective way to study the massive unexplored genetic diversity and gene pool of insects. Recent trends of use of DNA marker techniques in varied domains of insect ecological studies demonstrate that mitochondrial DNA has made a significant contribution towards advancing our knowledge of genetic basis of insect diversity. To shed light on various aspects such as genome organization, base composition, gene rearrangements, and other features, we integrated 165 mitochondrial genomes (mitogenomes) consisting of 37 genes and a noncoding control region, from four major insect orders (Diptera, Lepidoptera, Orthoptera and Hemiptera) for comparative genomic analysis. The same 37 genes were found in the majority of mitochondrial genomes, however the order of genes was found disturbed in a few mitochondrial genomes. The nucleotide composition was found strongly biased towards AT content. Usually, protein-coding genes prefer ATA, ATT and ATG as a canonical start codon. However, inconsistency was observed for few PCGs particularly for COI. The loss of DHU arm was found specific to trnS1 gene. In Zeugodacus tau (Pumpkin fruit fly), trnF gene lacked the TΨC arm. Majority of the mismatches (G-U (most common), U-U, U-C, A-A, A-C, A-G and T-T) were found within the acceptor arm, DHU arm and anticodon stem of tRNA genes but few in TΨC stem. Interestingly, a unique gene rearrangement from trnW (W codes for Tryptophan) to trnU (U codes for Selenocysteine) in the mitochondrial genome of Boettcherisca peregrine (Flesh fly) was observed. AT-rich control region remains highly variable among most of the insects. The review is aimed to draw conclusions for better interpretations of mitochondrial DNA evolution.