Diplomatic Correspondence Research Articles

Ethnic Cleansing and Diplomacy: A View of the Greek-Turkish Exchange of Populations of 1923–24 from the US National Archives

Abstract This article is on the diplomatic processes leading to the decision to exchange populations between Greece and Turkey during the peace negotiations at the Lausanne Conference in 1923. The US National Archives has rich and hitherto unexploited archival material that encompasses the correspondence between Istanbul, Athens and the US Department of State. As the Turkish Ministry of Foreign Affairs Archives is still closed to researchers, US diplomatic correspondence gives a clear picture of how Greek and Turkish statesmen, as well as intermediaries such as the representatives of the League of Nations, developed and accomplished the idea of population exchange in 1922–23.

Methods for encryption in early 19th-century Ottoman diplomatic correspondence

Ottoman cryptography, a phenomenon that did not officially exist in Ottoman State, emerged with the development of Ottoman diplomatic bureaucracy in the 19th century. In this article, as well as discussing early applications of official Ottoman cryptography, the traces and features of these efforts which began in the year 1797 have been revealed in the light of encrypted archive documents. Ciphers and encoding/decoding methods of Ottoman diplomats were also investigated in this study. Besides, the initial steps of cryptography amongst the Ottoman-Turks are presented and their characteristics have been assessed in this article.

Stylistic Features of Diplomatic Texts in Czech

The current article is devoted to the analysis and description of the language of a modern diplomatic text, which represents a diplomatic substyle of a business style. In the Czech language, which possesses a wide stylistic differentiation, a diplomatic substyle remains insufficiently studied. A diplomatic substyle is an integral part of the language of diplomatic communication, in which the Heads of the State and the Government, the ministers of foreign affairs, and representative institutions are involved. This fact brings it closer to the language of political communication.For this reason, the author aims at characterizing the stylistic features of traditional text types in the diplomatic correspondence between the Czech Republic and the Russian Federation, and highlighting their similarities and differences in form as well as in content. By the example of original texts the structure of a diplomatic document is represented: a form of address, protocol forms of courtesy and compliments, its semantic core and the argumentation part as essential parts of a document.The fore cited analysis of the functional-communicative features of the diplomatic texts lexical composition shows the presence of professional names and terms, idioms and cliché, as well as new lexical units and terms that reflect socio-political changes in the Czech Republic and new geopolitical realities.

Акцентология тахт эли: Орда большáя или бóльшая?

Research objectives: The author makes an attempt to determine the correctness of the emphasis in the Russian name of the Khanate Taht Eli – Bol’shaya (Great) or Bol’shaya (Greater) Horde; to check the connection of this name with the Mongolian and Turkic designations of the Mongol Empire, the Golden Horde, and the Crimean Khanate. Research materials: Russian, Lithuanian, and Crimean diplomatic correspondence from the fifteenth to seventeenth centuries; Russian medieval chronicles and other works; works of European authors of the sixteenth century; Turkic, Mongolian, and Persian histo­rical works from the thirteenth to eighteenth centuries; Golden Horde yarlyqs; monuments of Tatar and Kazakh folklore, historiography of the problem under study. Results and novelty of the research: The author concludes that the designation “Great Horde” (Bol’shaya) existed in Russian speech of the fifteenth century. This conclusion has to be justified, since, firstly, it seemed obvious and therefore had never been argued in historiography. Secondly, it must be discussed due to the recently proposed variant pronunciation ‘Bol’shaya’ (Greater Horde). The analyzed Russian name of Takht eli was a translation of one of the versions of the official name of the Jochi Ulus and at the same time, it repeated the distorted name of the Mongol Empire. The possible origins of the Russian name of the Jochi Ulus, the ‘Golden Horde’, are also to be found within the imperial history of the Mongols.

"CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF DIPLOMATIC TERMS"

"The article provides a brief description of word formation and its features in the diplomatic language. The terminology is the main layer of the scientific vocabulary, it develops and matures in accordance with the level of development of science and technology. The changes in the development of society significantly affect their transformation and replenishment. The sphere of diplomacy directly depends on social factors in society, it has a sectoral nature. In this article we also described the social aspects and concepts of the language. The diplomatic terminology is a system of linguistic units that form a series of semantic groups and define the relationship between scientific concepts and extra linguistic situations. The article widely explores the main lexical and grammatical features of diplomatic terms. There are many international words in the language of diplomatic correspondence, and their features and structure have been discussed here. The article was prepared on the basis of written sources and literature. "

‘Seeing You Have Not Withheld Your Son’: An Overlooked Motif in Genesis 22?

In Late Bronze Age diplomatic correspondence, vassals attempt to demonstrate their loyalty by declaring they would carry out any command of the king even if it is self-destructive. A critical aspect of these exchanges is that the seemingly harmful order was never meant to be fulfilled. The exaggerated offer to undergo needless suffering was sufficient proof that the subaltern was an arad kitti, or ‘faithful servant’. This rhetorical dynamic, wherein the ‘deferential gesture’ is enough to satisfy a seemingly overwrought demand, has relevance for evaluating components of the divine decree in Genesis 22, that Abraham deliver up his son ‘as a burnt offering’, his willingness to carry out its dictates, and the heavenly overlord’s ultimately setting aside its execution. The author suggests that the biblical episode was a symbolic ritual enacted between the deity and patriarch, whose intent was to exalt Abraham as the arad kitti, par excellence, and to demonstrate that God was the most trustworthy of suzerains.

Religious statecraft: Narratives of persecution and diplomacy in the case of Byzantine, Aksum and Himyar

When reviewed against the background of Byzantine diplomatic correspondence, Aksum’s religious policy on the Arabian Peninsula is perceivable within a Constantinian religio-political matrix. Imperial letters from Byzantine to Aksum and Persia denote the Byzantine role of arbiter of early Christianity. Byzantine Rome’s role in Christianity when reviewed from diplomatic correspondence with allies and antagonists recounts narratives of orthodoxy and persecution. Parallel review of letters from Constantine and Constantius decodes the Christian kingdom of Aksum as a participant of 4th-century CE Constantinian dynamics. This review was enabled through document analysis.

Decolonizing Diplomacy: Senghor, Kennedy, and the Practice of Ideological Resistance

AbstractAt the turn of the 1960s, Léopold Sédar Senghor and John F. Kennedy vowed to radically transform African foreign policy. Through a close reading of a recently declassified correspondence and a historical analysis of two behind-the-scenes negotiations, Senghor’s first state visit to the U.S. and Kennedy’s support for the First World Festival of Negro Arts, Ripert examines the private and public concatenations that lead both statesmen to transform policymaking not by implementing new policies but by challenging inherited ideologies. Though their efforts did not always bring successful change in policymaking, the diplomatic correspondence between the two newly elected leaders reveals a more subtle and sustainable transformation: a decolonization of diplomacy.

Regina (Charles and Dunn) v. Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs

662Diplomatic relations — Diplomatic correspondence — Exchange of Notes between United States Embassy and United Kingdom’s Foreign and Commonwealth Office — Express waiver of United States Embassy Administrative and Technical staff’s diplomatic immunity from criminal jurisdiction of United Kingdom, in relation to acts performed outside course of duties — Whether express waiver of criminal immunity applying to family members of United States Embassy Administrative and Technical staff — Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, 1961 — Whether entitling family members of diplomatic staff to derivative set of privileges and immunities or conferring separate entitlements to inviolability and immunity — The law of England

THE LINGUISTIC ASPECT OF MILITARY-DIPLOMATIC CORRESPONDENCE IN ARABIC

The article analyses the language of military diplomatic communication. It examines the distinctive linguistic peculiarities of Arabic military diplomatic document processing. A comparative analysis is made of official diplomatic and military-diplomatic foreign-language correspondence, highlighting their characteristic and distinctive features. The article demonstrates the composition and design of military official letters, formal messages, combat orders and directives, using examples of field materials in Arabic collected by the authors. The authors explore the role of diplomatic correspondence in building military-diplomatic relations and highlight the role of the military diplomatic correspondence in the formation and development of these relations. By examining official diplomatic correspondence, it is possible to visualize a state's foreign policy, the level of its relations with other states, and the demonstration of friendship or hostility. Experience shows that inaccuracies or misunderstood expressions can aggravate relations between different national cultures and linguistic groups, and even result in outbreaks of tension between states. However, diplomatic correspondence can clarify misunderstandings and the apologies it contains can prevent clashes and wars and restore peace and harmony. Considering not only the historically established diplomatic relations between states and social groups, but also the tense socio-political situation in the Arab East nowadays, we can conclude that official diplomatic and military diplomatic correspondence significantly affects international relations and their development in general.

The Russia Company and Russo-British Trade after 1600

The Russia Company and Russo-British Trade after 1600 Kevin Gledhill Maria Salomon Arel, English Trade and Adventure to Russia in the Early Modern Era: The Muscovy Company, 1603–1649. 363 pp. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2019. ISBN-13 978-1498550239. $121.00. Matthew P. Romaniello, Enterprising Empires: Russia and Britain in Eighteenth-Century Eurasia. 308 pp. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2019. ISBN-13 978-1108703086. $35.99. The British Russia Company (also called the Muscovy Company; henceforth, the Company), founded in the mid-16th century, provided significant economic links between Russia and England in the early modern period, and it was a crucial institution structuring Anglo-Russian relations. Its history offers insights into the bonds between early modern Russia and both its Asian neighbors and Western Europe. For many years, scholars' understanding of this company was limited, focused on the 16th century and a narrative of its failure to compete against Dutch rivals after the Time of Troubles (1598–1616).1 This story culminates in the 1649 ban on its activity in the interior of Russia, restricting its members to Arkhangel´sk. Since the 1990s, new works have reassessed the Company's history, seeking to understand its membership and operations, its internal political functions, and its continuing role in the Russian economy in the Romanov era.2 Recent works by Maria Salomon Arel and Matthew Romaniello [End Page 885] contribute significantly to the reassessment of the Company and to a deeper understanding of its later history. Each work considers the role of the individual merchant and their networks, placing their operations in Russia in wider contexts. Despite these shared features and arguments for the continuity of Company endeavors, these are substantially different works in terms of methodology and conceptualization of the relationship between British merchant and Russian state. Arel's book addresses the volume and flows of trade in much greater detail in order to challenge claims of Dutch supremacy over the White Sea route after 1600. This analysis relies on state documents—including petitions, diplomatic correspondence, edicts, court records, and the remaining import-export books of the ports of London and Amsterdam. Romaniello eschews a focus on the statistical data, preferring to track individuals moving between Britain and Russia from the late 17th to early 19th centuries. Embracing a framework of entangled histories linked through highlighted individuals, Romaniello's Enterprising Empires makes the case that a merchant could fill many roles within both states, pursuing personal commercial interests while acting as an informant for the Company or entering Russian imperial service. The fate of negotiations between Russia and Britain over commercial treaties was inseparable from their networks and colored by the rhetorical strategies employed by merchants pursuing multiple sets of priorities in Eurasia. Despite these differences, these books are in some ways complementary. In chronological terms, Arel's analysis continues up to the mid-1600s, where Romaniello begins. More significantly, each addresses the impact of the politics of the Romanov court, of the growth of the Russian domestic marketplace, and of the competition between European states on the Company's fortunes. _____ Maria Salomon Arel's English Trade and Adventure to Russia in the Early Modern Era draws upon and updates the author's dissertation on the Russia Company in the first half of the 17th century. Arel's first major claim challenges the [End Page 886] notion of declining English trade in Russia due to a failure to compete with Dutch rivals, arguing that the impression of English failure can be traced to qualitative descriptions in much later pamphlets. The idea of failure in competition with the Dutch are at odds with the statistical data of the London and Amsterdam port books. Despite the traditional view of Dutch supremacy in the White Sea trade after the Troubles, Arel argues that English trade expanded significantly until 1649. The growth of this trade derived from a combination of factors, including Russia's place in the global economic networks of English merchant companies. Its members invested in numerous other overseas commercial ventures, including those in India and North America, and connected them through their personal and familial bonds. The Company's place in the market was embedded in Anglo...

Translators and interpreters from eastern languages in the Moscow state at the end of the XV-XVI centuries.

This article examines the process of formation of the translation service in the Moscow state during the late XV-XVI centuries. The repertoire of Eastern languages available to Moscow translation specialists is analyzed. The author came to the conclusion that among the eastern languages, the main language of negotiations and correspondence was the languages of the Turkic group, and the use of Farsi at this time is questionable. The original form of international communication in the Moscow state was oral, and written communication was considered less honorable and performed an official, auxiliary function. Gradually, at the turn of the XV-XVI, oral communication gave way to the exchange of embassy certificates. After the dispute between the rulers about the language of diplomatic correspondence in 1563, recorded in the Russian-Crimean diplomatic correspondence, the parties returned to the usual practice of exchanging messages and the Crimean Tatar language retained its role as the language of diplomatic communication. Three groups of specialists engaged in cross-language communication are identified. The most elite were the Bakshi translators, who specialized in translating and writing letters. The second group is the interpreters. They accompanied foreign embassies, ensured their communication with the host country, and performed diplomatic functions. The third group is the heads of the villages of the service Tatars, who performed, in addition to their direct duties, the functions of interpreters of oral speech. In the XVI century, tolmachestvo played the role of a launching pad for the children of bakshey and podyachy.

Techniques and Practices of Speech Expression in Arab Diplomatic Communication

The article is devoted to analysis of the techniques and practices of speech expression in Arab diplomatic communication through the example of speeches made by Arab diplomatic corps representatives and politicians at various UN venues. Original texts of speeches made by Permanent Representatives of Arab countries at the UN concerning the situation in the Middle East were chosen as the material for the study. The time frame covers the period from 2011 to 2018. The UN’s multimedia resources are one of the largest platforms for diplomatic dialogue open to the general public. Due to the intensification of relations between Russia and the Arab countries, it is necessary to identify the specifics of Arab diplomatic communication, as the speaker’s statements are not intended to express his or her own attitude and assessment, but the attitude of the state he or she represents. When analyzing the texts of speeches by diplomatic corps representatives in general, we observed the interpenetration and mutual influence of several types of language styles, which depend on the specifics of the issue under discussion: officialese style, inherent in diplomatic correspondence, and publicistic, which is found in public speeches. The intermingling of styles undoubtedly affects both the lexical and syntactic weight of the texts in a statement. In turn, Arab speakers cannot remain emotionally indifferent to the problems of their region due to the difficult political situation in the Middle East. For this reason, we noted not only a regular deviation from diplomatic speech standards, primarily the abundance of emotionally evaluative vocabulary in the texts of their speeches, but also special strategies for constructing texts that help to have a certain effect directed at listeners and opponents — expression. Among the most commonly used methods of speech expression, we have identified repetition, cohesion, convergence and the effect of defeated expectancy. By means of analysis of expressive syntaxes we studied the specifics of the use of these methods of speech expression at the level of usual-clichéd Arabic text and highlighted the specifics of tapping this speech strategy in the language of Arabic diplomacy.

Diplomat Aleksandr Gavrilovich Golovkin: New Touches to Biographical Portrait

Aleksandr Gavrilovich Golovkin (1688–1760) is a famous Russian diplomat of the first half of the XVIII century. His name is associated with a number of prominent pages in the history of bilateral relations of Russia with Prussia, France and most important – with the Republic of United Provinces, to which A. Golovkin was Ambassador Plenipotentiary for almost thirty years. However, today both Russian and foreign historiography is lacking substantial pieces of research dedicated to A. Golovkin. Up to the present moment biography, compiled by the diplomat himself in 1756 for a questionnaire of high-ranking state officials ordered by the Emperor’s decree, and a short section in the Memoireswritten by A. Golovkin’s grandson are the only scarce available pieces of information to build upon. The Ambassador perished in the Netherlands. Thus, family archive documents for a period encompassing more than two centuries ended up scattered among numerous private collections of his descendants settled abroad. The ambassador’s wife was Catherine Henriette von Dona of an ancient Saxon family. This article strives to enrich A. Golovkin’s biography with yet unknown facts about his family ties with aristocratic houses of Europe, in particular with the Orange-Nassau dynasty, as well as to show the diplomat’s status among high-ranking officials of Russia in the middle of the XVIII century, what property he owned and what contributed to his long and successful service in the system of the Collegium of Foreign Affairs foreign missions. The look into Ambassador A. Golovkin’s personality is, first of all, designed to encourage the interest of researchers in his invaluable legacy – diplomatic correspondence stored in the Archive of Foreign Policy of the Russian Empire.

(Dis)connected Empires: Imperial Portugal, Sri Lankan Diplomacy, and the Making of a Hapsburg Conquest in Asia by Zoltán Biedermann

Reviewed by: (Dis)connected Empires: Imperial Portugal, Sri Lankan Diplomacy, and the Making of a Hapsburg Conquest in Asia by Zoltán Biedermann Susannah Ferreira (Dis)connected Empires: Imperial Portugal, Sri Lankan Diplomacy, and the Making of a Hapsburg Conquest in Asia. By Zoltán Biedermann. New York: Oxford University Press, 2018. xv + 255 pp. ISBN 978-0-19-882339-1. $85.00 (hardcover). This book examines diplomatic relations between Portugal and Sri Lanka in the sixteenth century. At its heart lies the question: What [End Page 166] led to the conquest of Sri Lanka by the Hapsburg rulers of Portugal in 1597? From the outset, the author asserts that the Portuguese did not set out to colonize Sri Lanka. Instead, allegiance was pursued by successive kings of Kōṭṭe who viewed a tributary relationship with the Portuguese as a way of securing the status of cakravarti—supreme overlords of the island. By the mid-sixteenth century, the rulers of Kōṭṭe had successfully allied themselves with Portugal. But different understandings of empire, and what it means to rule, led them to miscalculate the role of the Portuguese in Sri Lanka. Through this captivating history, Zoltán Biedermann challenges the usefulness of "connectivity" as a framework for studying global history. He argues that, while connections could facilitate the global transmission of ideas, miscommunication and break downs were frequent. (Dis) Connected Empires traces the way in which cultural misunderstanding paved the way for the colonization of Sri Lanka. Far from a simple story of European conquest and invasion, this book qualifies and complicates the story of the Portuguese in Sri Lanka. At times, a reader unfamiliar with the reigns, rulers and historical development of the two polities might be overwhelmed by the competing and overlapping narratives. But the broad chronology and detailed explanation of events are essential to Biedermann's argument: that the Iberian conquest of Sri Lanka was the outcome of a long historical process with multiple agents. To support his assertions, he draws primarily on European diplomatic correspondence and chronicles, but also makes judicious use of the extant Sri Lankan chronicles. The result is a balanced interpretation of the past. The book opens with a careful and critical look at "connected history" and the difficulties inherent in writing global history. Although Biedermann concedes that the study of connections can be fruitful, he questions the assumption that inter-cultural communication was always successful. The second chapter describes the initial contact between the agents of the Estado da Índia and the kings of Kōṭṭe, from Lourenço de Almeida's arrival in Sri Lanka in 1506 up to the accession of Bhuvanekabāhu VII in 1521. According to Biedermann, the Portuguese did not show much initial interest in the island but "were pulled into Sri Lanka by local elites" (p. 47) who were eager to foster tributary relations with a foreign power. Chapter 3 unpacks the Lankan concept of Empire which the author likens to a set of wooden matrioshka dolls. Within this system of "nested empires" each ruler governed independently and free from interference. Biedermann outlines the expectations of the rulers of Kōṭṭe in this regard: "Outside the island, John III was expected to patrol the seas and [End Page 167] maintain resources that might be deployed to protect Kōṭṭe … Inside the island, he was expected to let go of his resources and place them under the authority of the ruler of Kōṭṭe" (p. 89). It becomes clear that this concept of nested empires, which prized ties of suzerainty, directly conflicted with the European idea of empire which fixated on sovereignty and was modelled on Imperial Rome. Over the course of the sixteenth century, both Portugal and Kōṭṭe experienced important religious shifts. Chapter 4 explains how, in the 1540s, conversion emerged as a key diplomatic tool, used by princes and petty rulers of Sri Lanka to challenge the hegemony of Kōṭṭe. Although Bhuvanekabāhu VII (whose authority was predicated on Buddhism), refused conversion, other princes accepted baptism as a means of strengthening ties with the Portuguese. Biedermann presents the infamous looting of the Temple of Buddha's Tooth by the Portuguese in...

To the History of International Law: the Property Rights of the Citizens of Local Centres of Italy in the 14th and 15th Centuries in Foreign Territory

This paper considers what the archival material of the 14th and 15th centuries can tell us about this question: how and to what extent the rights of the inhabitants of certain northern Italian cities (Ferrara, Cremona, Padua and Venice) were protected if their property was located in foreign territory and/or their property interests could be restricted by the power structures of another Italian centre. The first problem concerned the property of the Church. A study of the documentary material shows that one way of preserving the property of the Church on foreign territory, despite the increasing tendency of secular rulers to seize church lands, was to place it in possession of the local population on a secure basis - emphyteusis, livelles, or other type of long-term use. The second problem was enforcing the contracts, i.e. suing the party which had not fulfilled or improperly fulfilled their terms if the infringer was on foreign soil. The records show that this was most probably enshrined in agreements between the Italian city-states and was incorporated by means of a special formula in the treaties. The third problem was related to the property rights of the inhabitants of medieval Italy, whose real estate, together with the territory in which it was situated, passed under the jurisdiction of another ruler. A study of the lettere ducali shows that such legal relations were based on treaties between the rulers of Italian territorial states and became the subject of diplomatic correspondence

Publication of Prussian Diplomatic Materials in the Sbornik Imperatorskogo Russkogo Istoricheskogo Obshchestva as a Tool of the Politics of History of the Russian Empire: Remarks on the Completeness of the Edition

At the turn of the nineteenth century many European states began to publish multi-volume editions of sources illustrating the political history of these states in previous centuries (for example, the Prussian Politische Correspondenz Friedrich’s des Großen). The Russian Sbornik Imperatorskogo Russkogo Istoricheskogo Obshchestva published by the Imperial Russian Historical Society is still used by researchers. It seems worthwhile to focus on the Sbornik and to assess its value as a scholarly edition using the Prussian diplomatic correspondence, included in that edition as a test-case.

КЕНЕСАРЫ ХАННЫҢ ҰЛТ ТӘУЕЛСІЗДІГІ ЖОЛЫНДАҒЫ ӘРЕКЕТІНЕ ҚАТЫСТЫ БІРҚАТАР МАТЕРИАЛДАР (1820-1840 жж.)

The personality of the last khan of the three zhuzes, Kenesary Kasymuly, his managerial abilities, ingenuity in military tactics, foresight and diplomatic position in the political arena are reflected in the works of professional historians, government officials and local poets and writers who arrived in Kazakhstan by the tsarist decree. In Soviet times, a group of scientists headed by one of the professional historians Yermukhan Bekmakhanov, domestic historians of independent Kazakhstan and Russian scientists, not indifferent to the personality of Khan Ken, also dedicated a number of their works to the personality. The main mission of Kenesary, a descendant of Genghis Khan, was to overthrow the reforms of the first quarter of the 19th century as a chain of colonial expansion, to restore the former Khanate, unite the three dynasties and achieve freedom. Despite many obstacles on the way to such a bold step, Kenesary Khan tried to use his personal intuition and high authority in the country. Important information about the events that took place against the giant empire, which united its forces with the khanates of Central Asia, did not go unnoticed in this article. Kenesary Kasymov managed to gather around him advisers and heroes, the most influential and active citizens of the people against colonial oppression. In the struggle for the return of the lands seized by the tsarist government, Kenesary relies on the experience of the Central Asian khanates in organizing troops. He divided his army into hundreds and thousands and appointed captains and commanders. Violators of military discipline were severely punished. The main goal of Kenesary's foreign policy was the creation of an independent Kazakh Khanate. To achieve this goal, he sought the support of the Central Asian khanates, interfering in their internal affairs and trying to win over their rulers. He sent ambassadors to the khan of Khiva and the emir of Bukhara to establish contacts. This will increase trade with the countries of Central Asia and purchase the necessary weapons and ammunition from them. The works of scientists contain valuable information that Kenesary refused to negotiate with the Kokand Khanate, which put pressure on the Kazakhs in the lower reaches of the Syr Darya, maintained friendly relations with the Emir of Bukhara and sometimes supplied him with ammunition and weapons. Kenesary was captured and killed during the Kazakh-Kyrgyz confrontation on the Kekilik mountain, inscribed by Russian troops. As the struggle of Kenesary for independence, so his expectation of a positive result by the combined efforts of the Turkic peoples clearly shows that he is a politician with a broad vision and far-sighted strategist. The authors focus on the preconditions for the national liberation uprising of 1837-1847 and the circumstances that led to the historical event. The death of his brother Sarzhan Sultan and father Kasym at the hands of the Kokand people in 1836 gave an impetus to Kenesary to take immediate measures. The article says that Kenesary Khan established close ties with the Orenburg administration through correspon-dence and thus tried to establish strong relations with the royal government. The features of the national liberation uprising are revealed and reference concepts are made. The uprising of Kenesary Kasymuly, known as the last khan of the Alash people, gave impetus to the local uprising of the Kazakhs of the Syr Darya. A number of facts about the historical significance of the uprising were presented, showing that imperial colonialism weakened the iron chain. Іn the pre-revolutionary period, there was a lot of research about Kenesary Kasymovich. Historical works, geographical works, political and diplomatic correspondence, written on the direct orders of the tsarist (royal) government and government officials, directly or indirectly declared a national liberation uprising. In Soviet times, many professional historians wrote about the uprising, despite the government's ban on publicity and comprehensive research. After ascending the rostrum of independence, secret information about Kenesary was revealed, and complex studies are expanding. With the direct support of the authorities, the name of the last khan of the three zhuzes reached high fame and historical justice among the people.

The reaction of the Chinese Government to Soviet Diplomatic Efforts to Resolve the Taiwan Question, 1949-1985

The article studies Beijing's reaction to the activities of Soviet diplomacy related to the Taiwan issue. The authors examine the dynamics of Sino-Soviet interaction in 1949-1985 within the context of this geopolitical problem. The article is based on historical sources (including proclama tions and speeches of Chinese and Soviet representatives at official meetings and within the framework of the General Assembly, as well as diplomatic correspondence) and on the Russian and foreign historiography. The paper covers the period of cooperation between Beijing and Moscow (1950s) and the time of high tension in bilateral relations (1960-1985). The PRC government's harsh criticism of Soviet diplomacy, together with its rigid position with regard to the establishment of official relations between the Soviet Union and Taiwan, lead to the conclusion that Beijing could have been deliberately delaying the solution of the issue, using the Taiwan question in its political interests. The authors make suggestions concerning what could have influenced such a position of Beijing towards the Taiwan issue. The real aims of Beijing concerning Taiwan were different from those that Beijing officially proclaimed.

Transformations of the Language of Diplomatic Correspondence between the Entente Countries and Germany before The First World War

The spheres of official communication, which include public administration, legal proceedings, legislation, etc., are regulated, in contrast to everyday communication. Activities in each of these spheres are subject to precisely defined, strictly established rules that regulate and legitimize it. The diplomatic language is characterized by a special degree of regulation. “The weight of a word” in international politics is extremely heavy, since the fate of entire states and peoples may depend on successful or unsuccessful communication between diplomats. The strict standardization of the diplomatic language should serve as a kind of deterrent against the growth of tension in international relations. The goal of this study is to identify the degree of susceptibility of the diplomatic correspondence language to transformations in the political crisis context (during wartime). The research material is based on the texts from the Orange book, a collection of diplomatic correspondence between warring countries before the outbreak of the First World War. The application of the contextual analysis method made it possible to determine the vector of changes in the diplomatic correspondence language caused by the political crisis: from restraint, emotionlessness, tact and politeness accepted in the diplomatic sphere to ultimatumness, categoricalness, manifestation of emotions and deviation from the principle of objective reflection of events.