Diode Signal Research Articles

Hollow Cathode Electron Beam Formation and Effects on X-Ray Emission in Capillary Discharges

Electron beams produced by the hollow cathode effect are studied in a compact gas filled 24-kV, 5-kA capillary discharge. The characteristics and role of electron beams on X-ray production are studied in order to better understand their impact on X-ray production. X-ray plasma emission is analyzed with a spectrometer, while wideband diodes and Faraday cup probe both electron beams and X-rays. Electron beams of >5 keV are observed early on the discharge and two types of electron beams are identified: a first beam of high energy and low current (with a speed of $\sim 5 \times 10^{7}$ m/s and a current density of $\sim 4\times 10^{\mathrm {-2}}$ A/cm $^{2})$ enhanced by larger cathode apertures, and a second beam of low energy and high current enhanced by smaller cathode apertures. The use of a simple configuration of external magnets prevents X-ray fluorescence production, caused by electron beams, from reaching electronic detectors hence confusion when evaluating X-ray yield from the plasma source is avoided. This is particularly important in extreme ultraviolet lithography and soft X-ray production applications. Furthermore, the presence of the external magnets does not modify line emission, which is detected by means of spectrometry. Therefore, the use of external magnets provides a way to discriminate X-ray diode signals produced by source emitted X-rays and X-ray fluorescence from electron beams.

SU-E-J-60: Evaluation of Temporal Lag in Radiotherapy Gating for Tumor Motion Trajectories

Purpose: Evaluating timing differences between LINAC beam ON/OFF and the estimation of tumor positioning using gating systems is essential for establishing confidence when treating with gating during radiotherapy, and is an annual requirement of TG-142. Temporal discrepancies between the trajectories of external marker surrogates and beam delivery may vary depending upon the type of external marker motion, which is quantified in this work for several trajectories. Methods: A precise robotic 3D motion stage performed several trajectories typically used for gating phantoms, including sinusoidal and Lujan-type motion; a commercial respiratory motion simulator was also employed. The true motions were monitored using variable resistors. The beam ON/OFF was controlled separately by two RPM (Varian) systems, an integrated version delivered by a Varian Truebeam LINAC and version 1.6 delivered by a Varian Trilogy, and measured using a diode. The resistor and diode signals were read by a multichannel digital oscilloscope, and timing differences between beam ON/OFF as measured by the diode and the phantom motion were determined using a peak detection algorithm. Results: Timing differences between beam ON/OFF and 3D stage motion peaks (diode—true motion timing) were computed to be 79.4 & 57.7ms for sinusoidal motion and 109.1 & 63.6ms for Lujan-type motion on the Truebeam LINAC, for beam ON and OFF, respectively. Timing differences for the Trilogy LINAC were 34.4 & 55.2ms for the sinusoidal motion and 29.0 & 26.3ms for the Lujan-type motion, for beam ON and OFF, respectively. With the commercial motion simulator, the timing differences were found to be −9ms and −78ms for beam ON/OFF, respectively, with the Truebeam, and −97.6ms and −60.9ms for beam ON/OFF, respectively, with the Trilogy. Conclusion: Setup-dependent temporal lags were found using this methodology. These discrepancies have the potential to influence quality assurance on gating systems and ultimately the treatment dose during radiotherapy. NIH National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering grant T32 EB002103-21

Rectification of radio-frequency current in a giant-magnetoresistance spin valve

We report on a highly efficient spin diode effect in exchange-biased spin-valve giant-magnetoresistance (GMR) strips. In such multilayer structures, the symmetry of the current distribution along the vertical direction is broken and, as a result, a noncompensated Oersted field acting on the magnetic free layer appears. This field in turn is a driving force of magnetization precessions. Due to the GMR effect, the resistance of the strip oscillates following the magnetization dynamics. This leads to rectification of the applied radio-frequency current and induces a direct-current voltage ${V}_{\text{dc}}$. We present a theoretical description of this phenomenon and calculate the spin diode signal ${V}_{\text{dc}}$ as a function of frequency, external magnetic field, and angle at which the external field is applied. Satisfactory quantitative agreement between theoretical predictions and experimental data has been achieved. Finally, we show that the spin diode signal in GMR devices is significantly stronger than in the anisotropic magnetoresistance permalloy-based devices.

Portable device for the detection of nitro-explosives based on optical properties of sensor's material

The aim of this study was to design a device for explosives detection. The study design is based on excited steady-state luminescence quenching registration. Sensor's material luminescence intensity reduction occurs due to an interaction of explosives vapours contained in the air. The decrease rate of the luminescence intensity indicates the concentration of vapours. To study the luminescent properties of the sensor element, its luminescence spectra excited by photons with energies in the range 280 - 425 nm were measured. The excitation photoluminescence spectra for luminescence bands of the sensor element were also measured. Excitation source was light emitting diode (375 nm) and luminescent signal receiver was a photodiode (430 - 650 nm) in device designed. The device is operated under control of a program. The algorithm provides multiple operating modes (configuration, calibration, measurement etc.). Thus this device is referred to the class of devices with increased sensitivity to the explosives vapors. The advantages of device are autonomic power, small weight and sizes, simplicity of device operation for measurements.

Radiation from Ag high energy density Z-pinch plasmas and applications to lasing

Silver (Ag) wire arrays were recently introduced as efficient x-ray radiators and have been shown to create L-shell plasmas that have the highest electron temperature (>1.8 keV) observed on the Zebra generator so far and upwards of 30 kJ of energy output. In this paper, results of single planar wire arrays and double planar wire arrays of Ag and mixed Ag and Al that were tested on the UNR Zebra generator are presented and compared. To further understand how L-shell Ag plasma evolves in time, a time-gated x-ray spectrometer was designed and fielded, which has a spectral range of approximately 3.5–5.0 Å. With this, L-shell Ag as well as cold Lα and Lβ Ag lines was captured and analyzed along with photoconducting diode (PCD) signals (>0.8 keV). Along with PCD signals, other signals, such as filtered XRD (>0.2 keV) and Si-diodes (SiD) (>9 keV), are analyzed covering a broad range of energies from a few eV to greater than 53 keV. The observation and analysis of cold Lα and Lβ lines show possible correlations with electron beams and SiD signals. Recently, an interesting issue regarding these Ag plasmas is whether lasing occurs in the Ne-like soft x-ray range, and if so, at what gains? To help answer this question, a non-local thermodynamic equilibrium (LTE) kinetic model was utilized to calculate theoretical lasing gains. It is shown that the Ag L-shell plasma conditions produced on the Zebra generator at 1.7 maximum current may be adequate to produce gains as high as 6 cm−1 for various 3p → 3s transitions. Other potential lasing transitions, including higher Rydberg states, are also included in detail. The overall importance of Ag wire arrays and plasmas is discussed.

Evaluation of the dosimetric properties of a synthetic single crystal diamond detector in high energy clinical proton beams

To investigate the dosimetric properties of a synthetic single crystal diamond Schottky diode for accurate relative dose measurements in large and small field high-energy clinical proton beams. The dosimetric properties of a synthetic single crystal diamond detector were assessed by comparison with a reference Markus parallel plate ionization chamber, an Exradin A16 microionization chamber, and Exradin T1a ion chamber. The diamond detector was operated at zero bias voltage at all times. Comparative dose distribution measurements were performed by means of Fractional depth dose curves and lateral beam profiles in clinical proton beams of energies 155 and 250 MeV for a 14 cm square cerrobend aperture and 126 MeV for 3, 2, and 1 cm diameter circular brass collimators. ICRU Report No. 78 recommended beam parameters were used to compare fractional depth dose curves and beam profiles obtained using the diamond detector and the reference ionization chamber. Warm-up∕stability of the detector response and linearity with dose were evaluated in a 250 MeV proton beam and dose rate dependence was evaluated in a 126 MeV proton beam. Stem effect and the azimuthal angle dependence of the diode response were also evaluated. A maximum deviation in diamond detector signal from the average reading of less than 0.5% was found during the warm-up irradiation procedure. The detector response showed a good linear behavior as a function of dose with observed deviations below 0.5% over a dose range from 50 to 500 cGy. The detector response was dose rate independent, with deviations below 0.5% in the investigated dose rates ranging from 85 to 300 cGy∕min. Stem effect and azimuthal angle dependence of the diode signal were within 0.5%. Fractional depth dose curves and lateral beam profiles obtained with the diamond detector were in good agreement with those measured using reference dosimeters. The observed dosimetric properties of the synthetic single crystal diamond detector indicate that its behavior is proton energy independent and dose rate independent in the investigated energy and dose rate range and it is suitable for accurate relative dosimetric measurements in large as well as in small field high energy clinical proton beams.

A study of pile-up in integrated time-correlated single photon counting systems

Recent demonstration of highly integrated, solid-state, time-correlated single photon counting (TCSPC) systems in CMOS technology is set to provide significant increases in performance over existing bulky, expensive hardware. Arrays of single photon single photon avalanche diode (SPAD) detectors, timing channels, and signal processing can be integrated on a single silicon chip with a degree of parallelism and computational speed that is unattainable by discrete photomultiplier tube and photon counting card solutions. New multi-channel, multi-detector TCSPC sensor architectures with greatly enhanced throughput due to minimal detector transit (dead) time or timing channel dead time are now feasible. In this paper, we study the potential for future integrated, solid-state TCSPC sensors to exceed the photon pile-up limit through analytic formula and simulation. The results are validated using a 10% fill factor SPAD array and an 8-channel, 52 ps resolution time-to-digital conversion architecture with embedded lifetime estimation. It is demonstrated that pile-up insensitive acquisition is attainable at greater than 10 times the pulse repetition rate providing over 60 dB of extended dynamic range to the TCSPC technique. Our results predict future CMOS TCSPC sensors capable of live-cell transient observations in confocal scanning microscopy, improved resolution of near-infrared optical tomography systems, and fluorescence lifetime activated cell sorting.

Observations of soft x-ray emission and wall ablation in a fast low-energy pulsed capillary discharge

We report on experimental observations of pulsed capillary discharges aimed at soft x-ray production within the water-window range. Through systematical studies of capillary tube characteristics and discharge conditions, radiation emission was analysed. Plasma properties were studied by means of spectrometry, wide-band PIN diode signals and plasma micro-channel plate imaging. Surface and bulk material analyses were performed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (EDS) and Auger electron spectroscopy (AES) in order to characterize the capillary inner surface after discharges. We report on hollow cathode effect enhancement by modification of cathode electrode aperture, as well as pressure conditions along the capillary, which were found to have an important effect over plasma and x-ray yields due to the modification of local electrical field and gas density. Capillary tube material and inner diameter also modified the interaction of the plasma channel with the capillary surface, thus modifying the plasma source characteristics. It was found that emission of the NVI line at 28.8 Å can be enhanced within the conditions studied, from no significant emission to sources delivering an average brightness of over 70.0 mW mm−2 per 2π sr. This demonstrates that hollow cathode electrons and plasma–wall interaction and ablation have a direct impact on emission quality.

Study of X-ray emission from plasma focus device using vacuum photodiode

A newly fabricated vacuum photodiode (VPD) is used to measure time resolved X-ray emission and electron temperature from plasma focus device operated in hydrogen medium. The VPD signals are compared with the PIN diode signal and observed to be of similar in nature. The acquired signals from VPD are deduced to measure electron temperature and X-ray radiated power for four different anode tips (cylindrical, diverging, oval and converging). The electron temperatures are found to be 0.64, 1.5, 0.60 and 0.55keV for cylindrical, diverging, oval and converging anode tips respectively in hydrogen plasma. The X-ray radiated powers are observed to be varying with respect to the shape of the anode tips and it is found highest in case of converging tip and lowest for the diverging one. Results indicate that VPD could efficiently be employed as an X-ray diagnostics in plasma focus device.

Measurement of distance changes using a fibre-coupled common-path interferometer with mechanical path length modulation

We present a novel type of fibre-coupled interferometric sensor. A micro-optical probe acts as a common-path interferometer and focuses the measuring light emitted by a laser diode onto the surface under investigation. The probe is mounted on a bending beam and deflected periodically by a piezoelectric actuator. This generates a phase-modulated interference signal, which is transformed to an electrical signal by a photo diode. The measurement principle is based on the fact that a distance change between the probe and the measurement object leads to a characteristic phase-shift of the measured signal. The photo diode signal is analysed in different ways in order to enable both high accuracy in the nanometre range and high measurement speeds, where the data rate of the sensor is finally limited by the conversion rate of the used analogue-to-digital converter. In order to extend the range of unambiguity of the sensor and to improve the robustness of measurement, we apply a dual-wavelength technique using two laser diodes emitting at different wavelengths simultaneously. Repeatability measurements, responses to distance changes and, finally, the measurement of calibration specimens with well-defined surface profiles demonstrate the performance of the system.

The Effect of Diode Response of Electromagnetic Field Probes for the Measurements of Complex Signals

Diode detectors present inside electromagnetic field probes are typically calibrated for linearity using continuous sinusoidal waveforms (CW). In this paper, it is shown that CW linearization is not adequate for the measurement of complex wireless communication signals with high peak-to-average power ratios. While previous analog and digital communication signals (1G and 2G) can be more easily corrected for linearity, newer 3G and 4G communication protocols employ complex modulations with stochastic signal envelopes. As a result, proper linearization depends on the diode response and signal characteristics, and large errors results if CW linearization is used. The errors introduced when measuring such signals with probes employing CW linearization are quantified in this paper. A numerical model of the diode response is provided and validated against measurements. Errors due to CW linearization can exceed 2 dB, whereas linearity errors within 0.4 dB are attainable using the proposed calibration procedures for even increased dynamic ranges.

Time-resolved measurements of shock-induced cavitation bubbles in liquids

A novel experimental method for the measurement of cavitation bubble dynamics is presented. The method makes use of a collimated cw HeNe laser beam that is focused onto a photodiode. A cavitation bubble centered in the laser beam leads to refraction and thus changes the diode signal. With sufficient temporal resolution of the measurement, the evolution of the bubble dynamics, and in particular, the collapse, could be well resolved (limitation is only due to diode response and oscilloscope bandwidth). In the present work this is demonstrated with cavitation bubbles generated with high-power nanosecond and femtosecond laser pulses, respectively. Bubble evolution is studied in two different liquids (water and glycerine) and at different temperatures and pressures.

Observations of the emission processes of a fast capillary discharge operated in nitrogen

We present observations of the emission characteristics of the plasma processes of a low inductance, sub Joule, compact capillary discharge, when operated in nitrogen at up to 600 Hz. A quarter period of under 10 ns is achieved allowing currents of order 5 kA. Four geometries are explored: two lengths, 21 and 36 mm, and two internal diameters, 1.6 and 3.2 mm. Transient hollow cathode fast electrons are associated with enhanced soft x-ray emission at shorter wavelengths with measured output energies of N VI at 28.8 Å as compared with a Maxwellian plasma. Time-integrated spectroscopy together with filtered diode signals, and with spatial resolution, reveals a small axial emitting plasma close to the anode. Optical time-resolved spectroscopy gives larger scale plasma parameters both of the anode and the cathode plasmas. This volume plasma covers the range 2–8 eV, while the x-ray emitting plasma covers 10–20 eV, according to geometry. Nitrogen metastable emission is also observed in the hollow cathode volume prior to breakdown. Both internal wall diameter and capillary length affect both the spectrum and the x-ray emitting volume as does the axial pressure gradient. Electron beams from the transient hollow cathode are associated in model spectra with the observed N VI, O VI and Al VII–X ionization stages. Operating conditions that affect the spectral purity and discharge characteristics include the internal pressure gradient and nitrogen to helium mix ratio. We discuss the suitability of the capillary geometries as a soft x-ray source and in the context of available computer models.

Quasi-omnidirectional electrical spectrometer for studying spin dynamics in magnetic tunnel junctions

We report an omnidirectional electrical spectroscopy setup for studying the spin dynamics in a nanoscale magnet. It has a measureable solid angle range comprising about 50% of the total range and allows the magnetoresistance and spin-torque diode signal to be measured simultaneously at any angle to the magnetization. This setup can provide detailed information about the spin-wave resonance modes excited in a nanoscale magnet.

基于阵列式多路信号采集的射击训练激光模拟系统

Existing small arms shooting training simulation system has the shortage of shot coordinate signal detection,In order to designing and solving this problem,the laser modulation technology and the multichannel data quick collection structure is introduced.The method of array multichannel modulation laser signals detection is put forward.A sort of diode string and signal detection structure is invented.The abscissa and ordinate is used to ensuring shooting coordinate,and the membrane is used for solving the problem of ordinary laser spot is too large in distance.

On the properties of n-type silicon diode detectors for clinical proton dosimetry

Abstract Silicon diodes of n-type produced at the Institute for Physical and Technical Problems (Russia) have been evaluated in two clinical proton beams with significantly different dose rates. The diodes demonstrated high radiation hardness up to at least 5 kGy of accumulated proton dose and good linearity in dose rate up to 8∙10 6 Gy s −1 . Diode signal as a function of depth in water was found to be proportional to the signal of a small-volume ionization chamber. No superlinearity of diode characteristics with accumulated dose was observed. While this effect needs explanation, the diodes are viewed as a viable alternative to the ionization chamber for small beam characterization in proton beams with extremely high dose rates.

SU-E-T-164: Determination of Response Factors for Si-Diode Detectors in Photon Fields

Purpose: While for air filled ionization chambers an approximately energy invariant response leads to an approximately position invariant calibration factor, silicon diodes express over response for low energy photons. This results in too high signals at large depth inside a photon field and outside the geometric field. However use of a silicon diode is appropriate due to its high spatial resolution. We measured the behaviour of the calibration factor for different commercially available Si-detectors and compared it with the behaviour of a small ionisation chamber (IC). The aim was to find a position dependent correction for Si-diodes. Methods: Depth dose curves and profiles were measured for five different Silicon diodes; i.e. the Scanditronix field photon (ye) and the stereotactic detector (gr), the PTW electron (pe) and photon diodes (pp) and the Sun Nuclear edge detector (se). The standard field size, 10 × 10cm2 and a 0.8 × 0.8cm2 field were investigated. The energies were 6MV and 10MV. Results: To compare the depth dose measurements the signal ratios at 20cm and 10cm depth were calculated. The difference between the diode signals was less than 3%. The “pp” and the “pe” signals were the closest to the ionization chamber signal ratio at the 10cm field. for the profiles, besides the penumbra, the signals outside the geometrical field differed significantly form the IC signal. By appropriate averaging of the diode signals and division with the IC signal we could derive correction factors for the different detectors. For the large field this correction was smaller 1. For the small field the correction became greater than 1, but only at points blocked by the MLC only. Conclusions: We propose to measure virtually simultaneously with a diode and an IC in order to correct the energy and hence spatial dependent diode response factor. This correction is otherwise hardly predictable.

Commissioning of the ALICE-PHOS trigger

The Photon Spectrometer (PHOS) of the ALICE experiment at LHC is a high-resolution electromagnetic calorimeter dedicated to the precise measurement of direct photon and neutral meson yields in p+p and Pb+Pb collisions at mid-rapidity in a pT range up to 100 GeV/c. A multi-level trigger system selects events of interest and reduces the overall data flow. PHOS generates two triggers: i) the Level 0 (L0) trigger for high luminosity p+p runs acting mainly as a spectrometer trigger and for selecting high pT photons in Pb+Pb and in p+p collisions; ii) the Level1 (L1) trigger corresponds to a more sophisticated shower analysis which refines the pT selection. The algorithms perform a pulse-shape analysis of the oversampled Avalanche Photo Diode (APD) signal followed by a sliding-window cluster finder. Both triggers are implemented in the firmware which, since SRAM-based FPGAs are used, can be changed on-line between runs. The trigger system was commissioned by cosmic rays and particles from interactions. The status of the trigger system and first results will be presented.

A Two-Stage Charge Transfer Active Pixel CMOS Image Sensor With Low-Noise Global Shuttering and a Dual-Shuttering Mode

A complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) image sensor with low-noise global shuttering and a dual-shuttering mode is presented. The developed two-stage charge transfer pixel enables noise canceling by means of true correlated double sampling. The implemented prototype demonstrates for the first time that a noise level of less than three electrons can be achieved in a global-shutter CMOS image sensor while attaining high shutter efficiency of 99.7%. In the dual-shuttering mode, both a pinned storage diode signal and a floating diffusion signal are used for desirable functions such as wide-dynamic-range imaging, motion detection, and dual consecutive snapshot imaging.

Measurement of the absolute wavefront curvature radius in a heterodyne interferometer

We present an analytical derivation of the coupling parameter relating the angle between two interfering beams in a heterodyne interferometer to the differential phase signals detected by a quadrant photodiode. This technique, also referred to as differential wavefront sensing, is commonly used in space-based gravitational wave detectors to determine the attitude of a test mass in one of the interferometer arms from the quadrant diode signals. Successive approximations to the analytical expression are made to simplify the investigation of parameter dependencies. Motivated by our findings, we propose what we believe to be a new measurement method to accurately determine the absolute wavefront curvature of a single measurement beam. We also investigate the change in the coupling parameter when the interferometer "test mirror" is moved from its nominal position, an effect which mediates the coupling of mirror displacement noise into differential phase measurements.