Dimensions Of Racial Identity Research Articles

Black adolescents' experiences with racial socialization, racial identity, and critical reflection of need for school change of racial inequity

AbstractThis preliminary investigation explored associations between Black adolescents' experiences with parental racial socialization (racial pride and racial barrier messages), dimensions of racial identity (centrality and private regard), and critical reflection regarding the need for school change of racial inequity. One hundred fifty‐one (78 girls; 73 boys) high school students from the southeastern United States were sampled for this self‐report cross‐sectional investigation. Findings revealed significant, positive total effects of racial pride and racial barrier socialization on critical reflection. Furthermore, a significant specific indirect relationship between racial pride socialization and critical reflection through centrality (small to medium effect), but not private regard. Unexpectedly, no significant indirect associations of perceived racial barrier socialization on critical reflection through racial identity dimensions were found. Implications for our findings are discussed for school‐based practitioners and policymakers.

Love on campus: College students of color, racial identity, and interracial dating

AbstractObjectiveThis study explores the relationship between racial identity and interracial dating patterns.BackgroundWe draw on multiple literatures, including research on race and interracial dating, and the importance of racial identity on well‐being and mental health outcomes.MethodUtilizing data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Freshmen we assess how dimensions of racial identity predict likelihood of interracial dating for Black, Asian, and Hispanic students enrolled at elite, predominantly White institutions of higher education.ResultsMultiple dimensions of racial identity predict whether Black or Asian students have dated interracially, and Hispanic students were more likely to have dated interracially than either Asian or Black students. School‐level characteristics, like the percentage of students who are White at each school, are the most consistent predictors of interracial dating patterns.ConclusionsOur findings contribute to broader work on how interracial dating practices (in this case, specifically for college students of color) are influenced not just by the race and gender of the individuals but specifically the salience of their racial identity.ImplicationsThis study expands the potential research utility of racial identity measures and adds greater nuance to analyses of interracial relationships among emerging adults.

Racial identity and sense of belonging: Moderators of Black college students' institutional race-related stress and anxious arousal.

Race-related stress due to institutional racism is a pervasive reality for Black college students and contributes to poor mental health outcomes such as anxious arousal symptoms. One framework which may account for this association between chronic stress and anxious arousal symptoms is the reserve capacity model. This study investigated whether racial identity dimensions (racial centrality, public regard, private regard) and sense of belonging to the racial group contribute to this population's reserve capacity and buffer the association between institutional race-related stress and anxious arousal symptoms. A sample of 134 Black college students completed racial identity, sense of belonging, and mental health questionnaires. These data were subjected to multiple regression analysis to assess the main and interactive effects of institutional race-related stress and dimensions of interest as predictors of anxious arousal symptoms. The analysis indicated that higher levels of institutional race-related stress, racial centrality, and public regard were each associated with higher levels of anxious arousal while higher levels of private regard and sense of belonging were associated with lower levels of anxious arousal. Further investigation of interaction effects revealed that high levels of sense of belonging and low levels of public regard, respectively, buffered the association between institutional race-related stress and anxious arousal symptoms. These findings illustrate how certain racial identity dimensions and sense of belonging contribute to the reserve capacity of Black students experiencing institutional race-related stress. Results are further discussed in the context of extant literature on Black racial identity and the university context. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Effects of bicultural competence and racial identity on intrinsic motivation: The mediating role of belonging to Native American tribal colleges

Since the arrival of Europeans in the Americas, Native Americans (NA) have experienced historical trauma (Brave Heart & DeBruyn, 1998). However, sources of socio-cultural resilience continue to exist within this population (Kirmayer et al., 2011). Rather than pathologize NAs, we attempt to better understand the implications of their sources of socio-cultural resilience. We sought to examine how bicultural competence and racial identity affect intrinsic motivation and how these relationships are mediated by a sense of belonging. Self-reported data for this study was gathered from a sample of NAs (N = 219) attending a tribal college. Results suggest that bicultural competence and the racial identity dimensions of racial centrality and private regard are related to intrinsic motivation, and these relationships are mediated by a sense of belonging. These findings suggest that tribal colleges are a likely source of socio-cultural resilience, facilitating success for NAs in an ever-changing world.

Superwoman Schema, Racial Identity, and Cellular Aging Among African American Women.

Background and ObjectivesAfrican American women experience faster telomere shortening (i.e., cellular aging) compared with other racial–gender groups. Prior research demonstrates that race and gender interact to influence culturally specific norms for responding to socially-relevant stress and other stress-coping processes, which may affect healthy aging.Research Design and MethodsData are from African American Women’s Heart & Health Study participants who consented to DNA extraction (n = 140). Superwoman Schema (SWS) was measured using 5 validated subscales: presenting strength, emotion suppression, resisting vulnerability, motivation to succeed, and obligation to help others. Racial identity was measured using 3 subscales from the Multidimensional Inventory of Black Identity: racial centrality, private regard, and public regard. Relative telomere length (rTL) was measured using DNA extracted from blood samples. Path analysis tested associations and interactions between SWS and racial identity dimensions with rTL.ResultsFor SWS, higher resistance to being vulnerable predicted longer telomeres. For racial identity, high private regard predicted longer telomeres while high public regard predicted shorter telomeres. Interactions were found between public regard and 2 SWS dimensions: among women with high public regard, emotion suppression (β = 0.20, p < .05) and motivation to succeed (β = 0.18, p < .05) were associated with longer rTL. The interaction between high centrality and emotion suppression predicted shorter rTL (β = −0.17, p < .05).Discussion and ImplicationsCulturally specific responses to gendered racism and racial identity, developed early in life and shaped over the life course, are important psychosocial determinants of cellular aging among African American women.

Traditional risk and cultural protection: Correlates of alcohol and cannabis co-use among African-American adolescents.

Previous work indicates that African-American adolescents are at high risk for concurrent alcohol and cannabis use. The present study examines the associations of traditional ecological predictors of substance use with concurrent alcohol and cannabis use among African-American adolescents. It also examines whether racial identity, a culturally relevant factor, is associated with concurrent use beyond the influence of traditional factors. Secondary analyses were conducted based on a large survey of high school adolescents. Responses on self-report measures of substance use and psychosocial determinants of health were examined for those respondents in grades 9-12 who identified as African American (N = 465; 59.8% female). Findings demonstrated that traditional risk and resilience factors, including externalizing symptoms and substance use beliefs, were related to alcohol and cannabis co-use relative to other patterns of use among African-American adolescents. Racial identity dimensions were also associated with alcohol and cannabis co-use beyond the influence of traditional factors. However, the direction of these associations varied by dimension. Findings from the present study assist in advancing the current knowledge base by identifying potential risk and protective factors for alcohol and cannabis co-use among African-American youth, who face increasing rates of this substance use pattern. They also underscore the importance of accounting for cultural variability in models of adolescent substance use among this population. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Differentiating competency from content: Parental racial socialization profiles and their associated factors.

For Black parents, the racial socialization (RS) process represents a critical parenting practice. Although the field has historically focused on the content of parents' RS, it is also important to consider caregivers' perception of their competence to effectively teach their children to navigate their racialized world. The present study investigated patterns of RS by exploring 332 Black caregivers' report of both content and competency. Using Latent Profile Analysis (LPA), we identified three profiles of RS: Multifaceted & More Competent (MMC), Unengaged & Moderately Competent (UModC), and Negative, Stressed, & Less Competent (NSLC). Additionally, we explored the role of several previously established correlates of parental RS, including sociodemographic factors (i.e., age, gender, and socioeconomic status), caregiving status (e.g., mother, father, and aunt), and parents' race-related experiences (i.e., history of RS, racial identity, and experiences with racial discrimination). Generally, the NSLC profile consisted of caregivers who were younger than those in the other two profiles, while those in the UModC profile tended to have younger children, relatively. Interestingly, caregivers in the UmodC profile reported receiving significantly less RS in childhood and experienced less racial discrimination than those in the other two profiles. Numerous differences were found across profiles for dimensions of racial identity. The emergence of these varied profiles, as well as the identification of factors that differentiated them, extends our understanding of RS and highlights the importance of considering parents' notions of feeling confident, skillful, and less stressed as they navigate such a vital developmental process for their children.

Racial identity and emotional responses to confederate symbols

AbstractObjectiveThis research tests whether psychological predispositions influence African Americans’ emotional responses to Confederate battle symbols. The former Mississippi state flag is employed here because it contained the Confederate battle symbol in the left canton.MethodsThe data were collected using a snowball sample of 68 African Americans from Jackson, the state capital of Mississippi. Emotional responses to the Mississippi state flag were measured using skin conductance levels (SCLs). Using ordinary least squares regression, the SCLs were regressed on variables measuring multiple dimensions of racial identity and ideology: Linked Fate, Private Regard, and Legal Disillusionment. Because of the significant presence of police officers in the sample, a dummy variable was included to account for this group. The study also controlled for the self‐reported Age of the participants.ResultsThe findings of this study reveal that African‐Americans suffer psychological trauma when observing racist symbols. African Americans who shared a common fate with other African Americans and those who possessed a high regard for other African‐American people were more emotionally responsive when they viewed the former Mississippi state flag. Police, however, were less responsive, when compared to civilians. This result may be attributable to officers working near the state capitol building and becoming desensitized to seeing the flag.ConclusionIn recent years there has been an increased interest among political scientists in the study of biopolitics. One of the shortcomings, however, is that the research has relied almost exclusively on white subjects. Our research helps to fill this gap by focusing exclusively on African Americans. We interpret the findings to suggest that African Americans do not uniformly respond to the flag but are unique individuals whose personal views and experiences shape how they respond to the world. Even when presented with symbols representing a horrid past of lynchings and terror, African Americans do not constitute a monolithic group. The removal of the Mississippi state flag establishes one of many historical markers in the states efforts to balance the scale of racial justice. Its removal also represents one less source of trauma for African‐Americans and a step toward racial healing for Mississippi and the nation.

Negative Inferential Style Mediates the Association between Racial Identity and Depressive Symptoms among African American Adolescents.

Negative inferential style is a cognitive vulnerability for depression. Yet, few studies have explored how this risk factor intersects with culturally-specific protective factors, such as racial identity, in a unified cognitive risk-cultural asset model in youth of color. The current study addressed this gap by exploring the interplay between negative inferential style, racial identity, and depressive symptoms in an urban African-American adolescent community sample (N = 233; 51.9% female). Cross-lagged panel analyses estimated concurrent and prospective relationships between study variables. Racial identity dimensions of regard, but not centrality, were significant predictors of inferential style, and buffered against the development of depressive symptoms via the development of a less negative inferential style. Implications for the study of racial identity and cognition, and treatment of African-American adolescents are discussed.

African American Activism: The Predictive Role of Race Related Stress, Racial Identity, and Social Justice Beliefs

Historically, African American activism has played a pivotal role in advancing social change in the United States. As such, there is an interest in examining possible factors that may engender activism among African Americans. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to extend research by Szymanski and Lewis (2015), which explored potential predictors of activism among African Americans. With a sample of 458 African American undergraduates, race-related stress, racial identity dimensions, and social justice variables were examined. A four-stage, multiple linear hierarchical regression model and two multiple mediation bootstrap analyses were employed. Race-related stress and racial identity attitudes significantly and uniquely predicted involvement in African American activism, complementing existing literature. Beyond that, social justice beliefs predicted African American activism over and above racial identity and race-related stress. More specifically, social justice subjective norms (i.e., social influence) was the most important predictor of activism for African American undergraduates. Implications for social justice development within institutions of higher education are discussed.

Black adolescents' anticipatory stress responses to multilevel racism: The role of racial identity.

Black adolescents face the stressful experience of racism in their everyday lives, which has negative implications for their health and well-being. In the current study, we explored experiences of individual, institutional, and cultural racism in relation to anticipatory racism-related stress responses (e.g., prolonged negative thinking, arousal in expectation of future racism) among Black adolescents (N = 442). We also examined whether three dimensions of racial identity, centrality, private regard, and public regard, moderate those relationships. We found that more experiences of racism at each level were related to greater anticipatory racism-related stress responses, measured as more cognitive activation of racial stressors, appraisal of coping strategies, and anticipation of future racism. We also found that some relationships between experiences of racism and anticipatory stress varied by regard. The positive relation between individual racism and perseverative cognition was stronger for those with low public regard. Similarly, the positive association between cultural racism and psychological anticipation was stronger for those with low public regard. The positive association between institutional racism and physiological anticipation of future racism was stronger for those with higher private regard. These findings contribute to the growing literature on the pervasiveness of racism in the lives of Black youth and the utility of racial identity to reduce harm from racism. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Examining Racial Discrimination’s Association With Depressive Symptoms Through Metadehumanization Among African Americans: Does Racial Identity Matter?

Though considerable empirical work has documented the ways in which African Americans are dehumanized by other racial groups, there is no research examining how perceiving dehumanization (i.e., metadehumanization) is associated with the mental health of African Americans. In this study, we examined the indirect effect of racial discrimination on depressive symptoms through metadehumanization and explored whether this indirect effect was contingent on racial identity (i.e., centrality, private regard). African American students completed measures in a university lab located in the Midwestern region of the United States ( N = 326; Mage= 19.7, 72.4% women). We found that the degree to which racial discrimination was indirectly associated with depressive symptoms through metadehumanization was contingent on racial identity dimensions. Specifically, the indirect effect of racial discrimination on depressive symptoms through metadehumanization was only significant for individuals who were relatively higher on centrality and private regard. This research suggests that the role of metadehumanization is stronger among African Americans who strongly identify with and have positive views of their racial group. We discuss these results in the context of social cognitive theories.

Racial identity and changes in psychological distress using the multidimensional model of racial identity.

Researchers have noted that racial identity-the personal significance and meaning of race (Sellers, Chavous, & Cooke, 1998)-may serve as a protective factor against the impact of racism-related stress and promote psychological well-being for African American young adults. One limitation of prior research is the failure to examine how changes in racial identity may relate to changes in psychological well-being over time, specifically those racial identity beliefs that are proposed to be stable. This study examined racial identity and its association with changes in overall psychological distress among African American college students. The sample included 171 African American college students (69% female) attending a predominately White institution in the southeastern United States using 5 waves of data collected over 3 years. Latent curve modeling revealed increases in racial centrality, private regard, and nationalist ideology, and decreases in public regard and assimilationist, humanist, and oppressed minority ideologies (comparative fit index range: 0.94-1.00; root-mean-square error of approximation range: .00-.07). Growth curve modeling also revealed that initial levels of racial identity predicted changes in psychological distress. Of note, higher initial levels of private regard were associated with sharper declines in psychological distress over time (β = .37, Sz E = .17, p = .027). Additionally, individuals with lower initial levels of public regard experienced greater declines in psychological distress over time as compared to individuals with higher levels of public regard (β = .60, SE = .15, p < .001). Findings suggest that racial identity dimensions that are proposed to be stable may change over time. These results also suggest that initial levels of racial identity variables (i.e., racial regard) predict later rates of change in psychological distress. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

African American Fathers’ Race-Related Discussions with Their Children: Associations with Racial Identity Beliefs and Sociodemographic Factors

Studies have highlighted that, for African American men, race-related and sociodemographic contexts are inextricably bound and have profound effects across the life course. These context and related experiences, individually and collectively, are critical social determinants of their parenting practices. The current study examined African American fathers’ racial identity beliefs in relation to their ethnic-racial socialization practices. Further, this investigation examines this association within the context of sociodemographic factors (i.e., age; education level; residential status). Data were collected from 174 African American fathers (M = 32.2; SD = 8.24; Range = 23–62 years of age) of adolescents (M = 12.6; SD = 2.20; Range = 8–18 years of age) residing in a mid-sized, urban city in the Southeastern region of the United States. Participants completed survey questionnaires regarding their parenting ideologies, sociocontextual experiences and parenting practices. Regression analyses revealed that racial identity dimensions (centrality; public regard; private regard) and sociodemographic factors were directly associated with multiple ethnic-racial socialization domains. Also, the relationship between fathers’ perceptions of others’ views about African Americans (public regard) and ethnic-racial socialization was moderated by residential status. Findings suggest that, African American fathers’ public regard beliefs, in combination with sociodemographic factors, shape race-related discussions with their children. Overall, results suggest that the public lens of fatherhood is further heightened by African American fathers’ sociodemographic landscape.

Queering Black activism: Exploring the relationship between racial identity and Black activist orientation among Black LGBTQ youth.

Linked fate, or connection to the Black community, may be a pathway to engagement in social justice action for Black liberation. The purpose of this study is to understand the role of racial identity on Black queer youths' orientation toward Black activism. We used hierarchical linear regression to examine relationships between dimensions of racial identity and Black activism orientation among 142 queer-identified youth. We found that racial centrality and racial ideologies predicted high-risk activism orientation. Additionally, assimilationist ideology moderated the relationship between racial centrality and high-risk activism orientation. The degree to which Black queer youth feel race is central to their self-concept relates with their intent to engage in Black activism. These findings demonstrate that racial ideologies matter distinctively to activism orientation and offer that perception of risk nuances linked fate as a pathway to activism for Black queer youth.

Promoting Resilience Among African American Girls: Racial Identity as a Protective Factor.

This study examines school climate, racial identity beliefs, and achievement motivation beliefs within a cultural-ecological and risk and resilience framework. Data were drawn from a longitudinal study of 733 (Mage =14.49) African American adolescent girls. A linear mixed effects model was used to determine if racial identity dimensions moderated the relationship between school climate and achievement motivation beliefs across four waves. Results revealed that racial identity (private regard and racial centrality) and ideology (nationalist) beliefs were associated with higher achievement motivation beliefs over time, while racial centrality and private regard, and a sense of belonging served as protective factors. The findings contribute to the importance of racial identity beliefs and increase the visibility of African American girls.

Racial identity in the context of pubertal development: Implications for adjustment.

The developmental significance of youths' racial identities during adolescence is well established. It is less clear how puberty, a normative process, influences the relationship between racial identity and adjustment outcomes during adolescence. This study examined whether puberty moderates the relationship between racial identity dimensions and internalizing and externalizing outcomes, and whether the effects of puberty and racial identity on internalizing and externalizing outcomes vary by child sex. Data are drawn from African American families (N = 176; 48% female) who participated in Waves 4 and 5 of Phase III of the NICHD SECCYD. Results indicated that fifth-grade boys who felt more positively about being African American and were less advanced in their pubertal development evidenced less internalizing problems 1 year later, after adjusting for previous internalizing levels; however, for boys further in their pubertal development, having higher private regard was associated with more, rather than less, internalizing problems. Additionally, fifth-grade boys and girls who were less advanced in their pubertal development and believed that society views African Americans in a more positive light (higher public regard levels) engaged in more externalizing behaviors 1 year later, after adjusting for previous externalizing levels. Findings offer new insights into the independent and synergistic linkages between racial identity and pubertal development in their relation to internalizing and externalizing outcomes among African American youth. (PsycINFO Database Record

African American Women and Obesity Through the Prism of Race.

There are minimal studies focusing on African American women and obesity, and there are even fewer studies examining obesity through a critical race theoretical framework. African American obesity research has largely focused on individual and community interventions, which have not been sufficient to reverse the obesity epidemic. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between race and body mass index (BMI) for African American women. Previously collected data from the National Survey of American Life Self-Administered Questionnaire, 2001-2003 (NSAL-SAQ) was analyzed for this study. The NSAL-SAQ dedicated a section to the exploration of group and personal identity, along with having anthropometric data and health habit questions to be able to conduct analyses for associations between the racial identity dimensions and obesity. Multiple linear regression was used to examine the constructs of racial identity on BMI comparing standardized coefficients (β) and R2adj values. Results indicated participants ascribing more to the stereotype of "Blacks giving up easily" (β = 0.527, p = .000) showed an increased BMI. Additionally, the negative stereotype of "Blacks being violent" (β = 0.663, p = .000) and "Blacks being lazy" (β = 0.506, p = .001) was associated with an increased BMI. Based on these finds high negative racial regard is associated with increased weight. This study contributes uniquely to the scientific literature, focusing on the construct of racial identity and obesity in African American women.

The Role of Racial Identity and Implicit Racial Bias in Self-Reported Racial Discrimination: Implications for Depression Among African American Men.

Racial discrimination is conceptualized as a psychosocial stressor that has negative implications for mental health. However, factors related to racial identity may influence whether negative experiences are interpreted as instances of racial discrimination and subsequently reported as such in survey instruments, particularly given the ambiguous nature of contemporary racism. Along these lines, dimensions of racial identity may moderate associations between racial discrimination and mental health outcomes. This study examined relationships between racial discrimination, racial identity, implicit racial bias, and depressive symptoms among African American men between 30 and 50 years of age (n = 95). Higher racial centrality was associated with greater reports of racial discrimination, while greater implicit anti-Black bias was associated with lower reports of racial discrimination. In models predicting elevated depressive symptoms, holding greater implicit anti-Black bias in tandem with reporting lower racial discrimination was associated with the highest risk. Results suggest that unconscious as well as conscious processes related to racial identity are important to consider in measuring racial discrimination, and should be integrated in studies of racial discrimination and mental health.

Dimensions of Racial Identity and Perceived Discrimination in Health Care.

Perceived discrimination is an important risk factor for minority health. Drawing from the scholarship on multidimensionality of race, this study examines the relationships between perceived discrimination in health care and two dimensions of racial identity: self-identified race/ethnicity and perceived attributed race/ethnicity (respondents' perceptions of how they are racially classified by others). We used Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System data collected in 2004-2013 and we specifically examined the data on perceived racial discrimination in health care during the past 12 months, perceived attributed race/ethnicity, and self-identified race/ethnicity. In models adjusting for sociodemographic and other factors, both dimensions of racial/ethnic identity contributed independently to perceived discrimination in health care. After controlling for self-identified race/ethnicity, respondents who reported being classified as Black, Asian, Hispanic, and Native American had higher likelihood of perceived discrimination than respondents who reported being classified as White. Similarly, after taking perceived attributed race/ethnicity into account, self-identified Blacks, Native Americans, and multiracial respondents were more likely to report perceived discrimination than counterparts who self-identified as White. The model using only perceived attributed race/ethnicity to predict perceived discrimination showed a superior fit with the data than the model using only self-identified race/ethnicity. Perceived attributed race/ethnicity captures an aspect of racial/ethnic identity that is correlated, but not interchangeable, with self-identified race/ethnicity and contributes uniquely to perceived discrimination in health care. Applying the concept of multidimensionality of race/ethnicity to health disparities research may reveal understudied mechanisms linking race/ethnicity to health risks.