Digital Contact Research Articles

Analysis of digital contact tracing technologies employed in Covid-19 pandemic

The corona virus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a worldwide pandemic that has claimed lives and negatively changed the mobility patterns of humans. Various Infection control measures have been employed for COVID-19, among them digital contact tracing technologies (DCTT). DCTTs are used to track and notify users digitally about their interactions with infected individuals and help strengthen health service systems. COVID-19 infections have reduced worldwide as Nations have adopted use of DCTT like Global Positioning Systems (GPS), Bluetooth, Quick Response (QR) Codes, Wireless Fidelity (Wi-Fi) which use health data, symptoms monitoring, mobility, location and proximity data for contact tracing. This paper reviews literature by analyzing GPS, Bluetooth, QR Codes and Wi-Fi as DCTTs employed for COVID-19 through desk study, highlighting their success and failure with an aim of stipulating ways the technologies have been used and how they could be improved for better results. Beyond its use for mitigating and containing COVID-19, digital technology can complement or in some cases amplify the traditional approach to global health program implementation. Digital contact tracing technologies (DCTT)have challenges, of key to note is low smartphone adoption, poor user acceptance, privacy concerns and digital training skills, to mention a few, that have all hampered digital contact tracing but are all overshadowed by the health benefits of DCTT and is required in addition to manual contact tracing. However, additional policy efforts are needed, to gain wide spread adoption of Digital Contact Tracing technologies (DCTT) among the public as a valuable means for containing the effects of the Covid-19 pandemic.

Effectiveness of Covid-19 contact tracing solutions

COVID 19 has become a global pandemic requiring public health officials to take many measures to contain its spread. Amongst the measures is tracing those who have been in contact with infected people i.e. contact tracing. This paper examines some digital contact tracing applications that were developed soon after the outbreak (in the year 2020) and how effective they have been. The paper highlights a study done on these applications which shows that there are some issues around the use of the applications which hinders their wider adoption by the public (adoption of these applications by the public is one of the surest ways of containing the spread of the pandemic). The paper goes on to examine an instance where one of the issues raised (security of Personally Identifiable Information, PII) is addressed in a proposed design solution. The paper concludes by suggesting what should be done by contact tracing application developers to ensure their products are more acceptable to consumers thereby leading to their wider adoption.

A Review of COVID-19 Mobile Contact Tracing Applications and Their Impact on Privacy

Contact tracing is a well-established process that has been utilized for years to assist in the effort to control the spread of contagious diseases. The rapid onset and spread of COVID-19 brought about the need for digital solutions which would help to speed up the collection and analysis of relevant health information. With the proliferation of mobile devices, the development of mobile device-based digital contact tracing applications appeared to be the solution. As countries around the globe created digital contact tracing applications for use by their respective populations, a variety of factors allowed for success for some and resulted in failure for others. This review highlights example countries with respect to their unique COVID-19 digital contact tracing solutions, the success or failure of the applications employed on mobile platforms, and the factors which have contributed to the success or failure of these solutions. Additionally, a review of research around data privacy and security in digital contact tracing apps is included.

Widening or narrowing inequalities? The equity implications of digital tools to support COVID-19 contact tracing: A qualitative study.

BackgroundAs digital tools are increasingly used to support COVID‐19 contact tracing, the equity implications must be considered. As part of a study to understand the public's views of digital contact tracing tools developed for the national ‘Test and Protect’ programme in Scotland, we aimed to explore the views of groups often excluded from such discussions. This paper reports on their views about the potential for contact tracing to exacerbate inequalities.MethodsA qualitative study was carried out; interviews were conducted with key informants from organizations supporting people in marginalized situations, followed by interviews and focus groups with people recruited from these groups. Participants included, or represented, minority ethnic groups, asylum seekers and refugees and those experiencing multiple disadvantage including severe and enduring poverty.ResultsA total of 42 people participated: 13 key informants and 29 members of the public. While public participants were supportive of contact tracing, key informants raised concerns. Both sets of participants spoke about how contact tracing, and its associated digital tools, might increase inequalities. Barriers included finances (inability to afford smartphones or the data to ensure access to the internet); language (digital tools were available only in English and required a degree of literacy, even for English speakers); and trust (many marginalized groups distrusted statutory organizations and there were concerns that data may be passed to other organizations). One strength was that NHS Scotland, the data guardian, is seen as a generally trustworthy organization. Poverty was recognized as a barrier to people's ability to self‐isolate. Some participants were concerned about giving contact details of individuals who might struggle to self‐isolate for financial reasons.ConclusionsThe impact of contact tracing and associated digital tools on marginalized populations needs careful monitoring. This should include the contact tracing process and the ability of people to self‐isolate. Regular clear messaging from trusted groups and community members could help maintain trust and participation in the programme.Patient and Public ContributionOur patient and public involvement coapplicant, L. L., was involved in all aspects of the study including coauthorship. Interim results were presented to our local Public and Patient Involvement and Engagement Group, who commented on interpretation and made suggestions about further recruitment.

The Impact of Digital Contact Tracing Apps Overuse on Prevention of COVID-19: A Normative Activation Model Perspective.

During the COVID-19 pandemic, many countries have used digital contact tracing apps (DCTAs) to implement contact tracing. Although the use of DCTAs has contributed to the prevention and control of COVID-19, there are doubts in academia about their actual effectiveness. In this study, the role of DCTAs in the prevention of COVID-19 was analyzed in terms of both the responsibility and inconvenience to life in a large-scale DCTA overuse environment, based on the normative activation model. The findings suggest that the overuse of a DCTA activates people’s personal norms by triggering awareness of the consequences and ascription of responsibility, leading people to consistently cooperate with the government to prevent COVID-19. However, the inconvenience of living with DCTA overuse weakens the effect of the awareness of consequences and ascription of responsibility and the role of the ascription of responsibility in influencing personal norms. These effects may bear on people’s willingness to consistently cooperate with the government to prevent COVID-19. The results of this study confirm the effectiveness of DCTA in counteracting pandemics from a social responsibility perspective in a large-scale environment where DCTA is used, enriching the literature on DCTA research in the COVID-19 pandemic. The results of this study can also help governments develop and improve policies to prevent COVID-19, as well as improve the DCTAs’ operating patterns.

Developing digital contact tracing tailored to haulage in East Africa to support COVID-19 surveillance: a protocol

IntroductionAt the peak of Uganda’s first wave of SARS-CoV-2 in May 2020, one in three COVID-19 cases was linked to the haulage sector. This triggered a mandatory requirement for a...

Factors affecting adoption of digital contact tracing during the COVID-19 pandemic: a literature review

Factors affecting adoption of digital contact tracing during the COVID-19 pandemic: a literature review

An evaluation of privacy policies used in digital contact tracing apps for COVID-19

Background: After coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) spread across the globe, quarantine regulations were supplemented by digital contact tracing initiatives in the form of mobile applications and other surveillance. This paper examines digital contact tracing on a global scale using English privacy policy information from mobile digital contact tracing applications (DCTAs) compared to guidelines on digital proximity tracing from the World Health Organization (WHO) published in May 2020.

Inter-limb Asymmetries, Power, And Internal Training Loads In NCAA Division I Female Soccer Athletes

Periodic testing and workload monitoring throughout a competitive season can help athletes and coaches periodize training to optimize performance. In particular, vertical jump testing to assess power output and inter-limb asymmetries can be used to monitor athlete-readiness. PURPOSE: To evaluate the relationship between internal training loads, power output, and inter-limb asymmetries throughout a competitive soccer season. METHODS: National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I female soccer players (N = 21) were evaluated at all practices and games using a team-based heart rate monitoring system to assess internal training load via Banister’s training impulse score (TRIMP). At the beginning of each week, athletes performed a dynamic warmup followed by maximal bilateral (CMJ) and single leg (SL) countermovement vertical jump tests using a hands-on-hips method assessed via a digital contact mat. The best of two trials were used for each jump test. An asymmetry index (ASY) was calculated by dividing dominant by non-dominant SL height. Linear mixed effects models were used to assess changes in TRIMP, CMJ, and ASY throughout the season. Repeated measures correlations were used to determine relationships between weekly changes in TRIMP, CMJ and ASY using an absolute ASY score. Significance was set at p < 0.05. Descriptive statistics are presented as mean ± standard deviation. RESULTS: Time main effects were observed for weekly changes in TRIMP (573 ± 150au; p < 0.001) and CMJ (43.1 ± 0.8 cm; p = 0.01) over the season. No changes in ASY were observed (2.0 ± 1.5%; p = 0.09). There was a significant weak correlation between CMJ and ASY (r = 0.17; p = 0.04), but no other relationships between TRIMP, CMJ, and ASY were observed (p > 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Changes in internal workload and power output were apparent throughout the season. Although no significant changes in ASY were seen, an inverse correlation between ASY and power output was observed, which may impact on-field performance. Declines in peak power along with higher asymmetry rates have been associated with increased injury risk. Proper athlete management programs that incorporate systematic monitoring and periodic testing may help to mitigate these risks by affording the opportunity for early interventions designed to improve athlete readiness.

Towards a systemic functional approach to context collapse

Abstract This paper presents an initial systemic functional interpretation of the nuclear features of the phenomenon known as “context collapse”, which occurs when multiple online audiences (such as family, friends and coworkers) are “flattened” into a single group of potential recipients. After introducing the fundamental systemic functional dimensions of stratification and instantiation, we briefly present Hasan’s systemic description of the contextual parameter of Tenor, which deals with the potential relations and roles enacted by the participants of an interaction. We propose that such a contextual system enables us to describe with theoretical precision the nuclear features of context collapse: besides one-way digital contact in Mode, the selection of [addressee: absent: category] in the system of TEXTUAL ROLES and a generalized vagueness in the system of SOCIAL ROLES. Finally, we outline two major strategies employed to circumvent it: enactment--based and activation-based.

Enforcement of the Use of Digital Contact-Tracing Apps in a Common Law Jurisdiction.

Digital contact-tracing systems have been widely implemented worldwide with different system designs and implementation policies for the purpose of tracking potentially exposed individuals. The use of a digital contact-tracing app in Hong Kong has been mandated for visiting certain premises by legislations. This paper reviewed the regulations promulgated specifically for the prevention and control of COVID-19 and identified those associated with the digital contact-tracing system. A comprehensive search in newspaper databases was performed to explore the enforcement of the mandated use of the digital contact-tracing app. The three facets of regulations in relation to digital contact tracing were examined: duty to disclose information, requirements and directions to businesses, and compulsory testing. The use of digital contact-tracing data for non-public health purposes was also reported. Our analyses showed that prosecution of non-use or the use of fraudulent digital contact-tracing apps was not limited to COVID-19-specific legislations. The flexible approach ensured the enforcement of the use of the digital contact-tracing app, but the judiciary’s test must be passed in future cases.

COVID-19 Contact Tracing and the Operationalisation of Somatechnics

This article draws on the paradigm of media operationalism to understand the somatechnical construction of bodies during the COVID-19 pandemic. According to the concept of somatechnics, one’s experience with the social world is articulated through the available technologies and techniques required to and developed from using these technologies ( Sullivan and Murray 2016 ). By drawing on the case of the Service Victoria app, the digital COVID-19 contact tracing system launched by the Victoria State government in Australia, I focus on the transformative meaning of technologies and somatechnics and how subjectivity is being redefined through the lens of technological utilisation. I suggest that all human-related forms of relations (human-to-human and human-to-machine) have become secondary and give way to the synchronic data-to-data relation of the app. In the regime of operational media, the body is not just a historical and cultural construction but a techno-transactional object that supports the optimisation of automated-decision making. The recent operational-turn in media studies provides a useful pathway to rethink the changing meaning of body and the human/technologies entanglement.

‘I’m right behind you’: Digital contact tracing under European law

The features of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic demand a new form of contact tracing performed by digital means: digital contact tracing. However, this mechanism raises several issues in light of relevant European regulations, particularly in terms of personal data protection and privacy. The challenge is to have a digital contact tracing model that efficiently and speedily alerts people to potential infection, so they can get tested and isolated as necessary, but that also complies with European legal standards. This paper will address two main issues. First, it will analyse digital contract tracing and its different features from the perspective of data protection and privacy, seemingly the main concern in this domain. Secondly, the paper will analyse the loopholes and benefits of digital contact tracing in the European context, focusing on the tension between privacy, individual liberties and public health to address its legitimacy.

A methodology for evaluating digital contact tracing apps based on the COVID-19 experience

Controlling the spreading of infectious diseases has been shown crucial in the COVID-19 pandemic. Traditional contact tracing is used to detect newly infected individuals by tracing their previous contacts, and by selectively checking and isolating any individuals likely to have been infected. Digital contact tracing with the utilisation of smartphones was contrived as a technological aid to improve this manual, slow and tedious process. Nevertheless, despite the high hopes raised when smartphone-based contact tracing apps were introduced as a measure to reduce the spread of the COVID-19, their efficiency has been moderately low. In this paper, we propose a methodology for evaluating digital contact tracing apps, based on an epidemic model, which will be used not only to evaluate the deployed Apps against the COVID-19 but also to determine how they can be improved for future pandemics. Firstly, the model confirms the moderate effectiveness of the deployed digital contact tracing, confirming the fact that it could not be used as the unique measure to fight against the COVID-19, and had to be combined with additional measures. Secondly, several improvements are proposed (and evaluated) to increase the efficiency of digital control tracing to become a more useful tool in the future.

Lessons Learned in Piloting a Digital Personalized COVID-19 "Radar" on a University Campus.

Health authorities encouraged the use of digital contact tracing mobile applications (apps) during the COVID-19 pandemic, but the level of adoption was low because apps offered few direct benefits to counterbalance risks to personal privacy. Adoption of such apps could improve if they provided benefits to users. NOVID (COVID-19 Radar), a smartphone app, provided users with personalized data on social proximity of COVID-19 cases and exposed contacts. We analyzed uptake of NOVID at the Georgia Institute of Technology (Georgia Tech) during the 2020-2021 academic year. Data included anonymous NOVID users who self-identified with Georgia Tech and their first- and second-degree network contacts. NOVID achieved 13%-30% adoption at Georgia Tech. Because of technical challenges, adoption waned after an initial peak. The largest increases in adoption (from 41 to 3704) followed administrative promotion of NOVID. Adoption increased modestly (from 2512 to 2661) after faculty- and student-led promotion, such as distribution of door hangers and a public seminar. Two-thirds of on-campus NOVID users were connected to a large network of other users, enabling them to receive data on social proximity of COVID-19 cases and exposed contacts. Network cohesion was observed to emerge rapidly when adoption rates passed just 10%, consistent with estimates from network theory. The key lesson learned in this case study is that top-down administrative promotion outperforms bottom-up grassroots promotion. Relatively high levels of adoption and network cohesion, despite technical challenges during the Georgia Tech pilot of NOVID, illustrate the promise of digital contact tracing when apps provide privacy and inherently beneficial personalized data to their users, especially in regions where Google Apple Exposure Notification is not available.

The value of social interactions and incentives on the use of a digital contact tracing tool post COVID-19 lockdown in Singapore

We assessed the preferences and trade-offs for social interactions, incentives, and being traced by a digital contact tracing (DCT) tool post lockdown in Singapore by a discrete choice experiment (DCE) among 3839 visitors of a large public hospital in Singapore between July 2020 – February 2021. Respondents were sampled proportionately by gender and four age categories (21 – 80 years). The DCE questionnaire had three attributes (1. Social interactions, 2. Being traced by a DCT tool, 3. Incentives to use a DCT tool) and two levels each. Panel fixed conditional logit model was used to analyse the data. Respondents were more willing to trade being traced by a DCT tool for social interactions than incentives and unwilling to trade social interactions for incentives. The proportion of respondents preferring no incentives and could only be influenced by their family members increases with age. Among proponents of monetary incentives, the preferred median value for a month’s usage of DCT tools amounted to S$10 (USD7.25) and S$50 (USD36.20) for subsidies and lucky draw. In conclusion, DCE can be used to elicit profile-specific preferences to optimize the uptake of DCT tools during a pandemic. Social interactions are highly valued by the population, who are willing to trade them for being traced by a DCT tool during the COVID-19 pandemic. Although a small amount of incentive is sufficient to increase the satisfaction of using a DCT tool, incentives alone may not increase DCT tool uptake.

A Blockchain-Based Human-to-Infrastructure Contact Tracing Approach for COVID-19

In a post-pandemic era with personal precautions and vaccination, the emergence of COVID-19 variants with higher transmissibility and the socio-economic reopening have raised new challenges to existing human-to-human digital contact tracing systems, where privacy, efficiency, and energy-consumption issues are major concerns. In this article, we propose a novel blockchain-based human-to-infrastructure contact tracing framework for the post-pandemic era. Specifically, our approach collects and records the interaction information between persons and predeployed anchor nodes to trace the possible contacts with confirmed patients, so as to capture the indirect contacts and reduces the energy consumption of users. To address the privacy leakage and reliability issues in contact tracing, we introduce a self-sovereign identity (SSI) model-based blockchain which enables users to gain full control of their own identities and eliminate the linkage between the identity and location information in interaction records. To further preserve the privacy of confirmed patients, we introduce the private set intersection cardinality (PSI-CA) protocol to estimate the risk of infection by only counting the number of encounters between users and confirmed patients. Two self-executed smart contracts are deployed on the SSI blockchain to perform contact tracing, which guarantees the robustness of the system. The performance analysis validates the effectiveness of our approach.

Digital Contact Tracing and Privacy

Digital Contact Tracing and Privacy

Study on surface wettability of nickel coating prepared by electrodeposition combined with chemical etching

Nickel coatings with different surface characteristics were prepared on copper substrate by electrodeposition. Subsequently, the as-coating surface was etched with a mixed solution of FeCl3, HCl and H2O2 at different times, to obtain different surface morphologies and special microstructures. The surface morphologies, element composition, roughness and liquid contact angle were characterized by scanning electron microscope, energy dispersive X-Ray spectroscopy, 3D digital microscope and contact angle measurement. The van Oss-Chaudhury-Good method was used to calculate the solid surface free energy and discuss the variation of surface wettability. The results show that etching time has a significant effect on surface morphology, roughness and wettability. After long-time physical aging, the multiple polygonal-layered architectures and larger-sized layered microstructure can maintain high surface free energy and keep the liquid metal in a good hydrophilic state, which provides a reference for optimizing the surface morphologies of the casting roll. This will improve the heat transfer efficiency and promote heterogeneous nucleation during twin-roll continuous casting.

Nationwide Adoption of a Digital Contact Tracing App: Examining the Role of Privacy Concern, Political Trust, and Technology Literacy

ABSTRACT Digital contact tracing (DCT) has become an efficient method for authorities to curb COVID-19. However, the current public opinion studies on the adoption of DCT primarily focus on Western countries and rarely explore citizen attitudes in Asian contexts where DCT is often mandatory. Moreover, the existing literature extensively explores how privacy concern negates the adoption of DCT without illuminating the solutions to such barriers. To unveil the mechanisms of DCT adoption, this study explores how Singaporeans’ privacy concern, political trust, and technology literacy can influence their attitudes toward TraceTogether (a local DCT program). An analysis of survey data suggests that privacy concern is positively associated with negative attitudes toward DCT. Those with high levels of political distrust also hold negative attitudes toward DCT. Political distrust is also found to positively mediate the relationship between privacy concerns and negative attitudes toward DCT. Finally, moderated mediation findings suggest that the indirect effects of privacy concern on negative attitudes toward DCT via political distrust increase with an increase in technological literacy. Simply put, the indirect effects are stronger for those with higher-tech literacy. We discuss the tension between privacy concerns and public health during the pandemic and propose policy suggestions.