Different Types Of Victimization Research Articles

Camouflaged liability: How the distinction between civilians and soldiers influences moral judgement of permissible harm in war

AbstractPrevious research has shown that people judge sacrificing a few people to save a larger number to be morally permissible when the intervention targets the threat but not when it targets the victims. We investigated whether this distinction according to the locus of intervention influences people's evaluations of wartime scenarios and whether such evaluations vary according to different types of victims (e.g., civilians vs. soldiers). We observed a significant effect of locus of intervention in situations in which a smaller number of civilians were sacrificed to save a larger number of civilians (Study 1; N = 142). However, the effect of locus of intervention was less pronounced in scenarios in which soldiers were sacrificed to save civilians (Studies 2 and 3; N = 173 and N = 841). A fourth experiment (N = 477) explored why participants treated soldiers and civilians differently. Participants believed that it is more permissible to sacrifice soldiers because they consent to being harmed.

Missing the Mark? A Typology of Lethal and Non-Lethal Firearm Violence in the Netherlands

Firearm violence in Europe is a complex phenomenon; it manifests itself in various contexts and circumstances, involving different types of victims and perpetrators. Yet, previous research does not account for this complexity and focuses mainly on lethal firearm violence alone. In this study, we use 243 cases of lethal shootings (2015–2021) and 807 cases of non-lethal shootings in the Netherlands (2018–2021) to build a typology of firearm violence using agglomerative hierarchical clustering. The analysis results show five distinct types: urban lethal shootings, urban injurious shootings, and urban non-injurious shootings, as well as suburban and rural shootings. Those categories differ mainly in the lethality, urbanity, context, and location of the shootings. We conclude that the inclusion of non-lethal firearm violence is necessary in understanding and act upon this multifaceted problem.

The Relationships Between Mental Health and Violent Offending Among Serious Adolescent Offenders: An Examination of the Mediating Role of Experienced and Witnessed Victimization

Although a long line of research has examined the association between mental health and offending, previous literature primarily focused on the uni-directional path from mental health problems to offending, or vice versa. Also, there is still much to learn about how different types of victimization are related to the link between the two. To examine these questions, a series of fixed-effect models were employed to examine (1) the assessment of the relationship between mental health and violent offending and (2) the mediating role of experienced and witnessed victimization in that relationship. The results show a significant relationship between mental health and violent offending, while differences were found between the two types of victimization. Limitations and future research suggestions were discussed

Conflict and social control among cannabis growers

AimsIllegal drug markets are often assumed to be violent and predatory due to the absence of third-party enforcement. While cannabis markets are generally considered to be relatively more peaceful, there has been little investigation of the levels of conflict and victimization among small-scale cannabis growers, particularly under different cannabis policy and enforcement settings. This paper explores prevalence and predictors of conflict and social control among small-scale cannabis growers. MethodsThe data were obtained from an online convenience survey of small-scale cannabis growers from 13 countries (Austria, Canada, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Israel, New Zealand, Portugal, Switzerland, United Kingdom, United States, and Uruguay) from August 2020 to September 2021 (N = 5667). Key measures collected included the types of victimization due to cannabis growing, the perpetrators of these predatory actions, reasons for the conflict, and the grower's response to being victimized. Multivariate logistic regression models were used to identify predictors of different types of victimization and social control responses among cannabis cultivators. ResultsMost growers (76 %) never directly experienced violence or other victimization related to their cannabis cultivation. However, about one-quarter of growers had been victimized at some point, mostly involving theft, with physical violence rare. Growing outdoors, growing with others, growing more plants, and being a more seasoned grower increased the risk of victimization. Growers who were motivated by profit were more susceptible to theft. Surprisingly, growers in legal recreational jurisdictions experienced greater levels of theft and violent victimization than growers in illegal jurisdictions. Nonviolent social control responses predominated among the growers, mostly characterized by toleration but also avoidance and negotiation. ConclusionWhile most growers reported no victimization, a substantial minority did so, largely theft rather than violence, and typically did not report employing retaliatory violence. Social control responses were mostly nonviolent. These findings varied under different cannabis policy and enforcement environments. Cannabis legalization does not eliminate opportunities for theft and violence related to cannabis cultivation.

Online grooming among Portuguese adolescents and the COVID-19 lockdown: Relationship with other types of victimization

Background: Online grooming is the sexual solicitations and interactions between an adult and a minor, aiming to sexually abuse or obtain sexual material for the sexual satisfaction of themselves or others. Experiencing victimization during childhood or adolescence increases the probability of exposure to other types of victimization. Objectives: This study analyses the relationship between grooming, other types of juvenile victimization, and consensual sexting. We compare victims and non-victims of online grooming concerning sexting, sextortion, juvenile victimization, and online parental control. We also aim to identify the prevalence of online grooming in the present sample during and after the COVID-19 pandemic confinement and the impact of other types of juvenile victimization on grooming. Participants: The sample comprised 106 Portuguese adolescents (57 boys and 49 girls) aged 12 to 15. Method: Participants answered the sociodemographic questionnaire that contemplates online parental control and sextortion items, the Questionnaire for Online Sexual Solicitations and Interactions with Adults, the Sexting Questionnaire, and the Juvenile Victimization Questionnaire. Results: The results showed a positive correlation between online grooming, juvenile victimization, and sexting, as well as statistically significant differences between victims and non-victims of online grooming. Victims showed higher levels of sexting, sextortion, and other juvenile victimization. It also revealed higher levels of sexting and online grooming during and after the COVID-19 lockdown. Predictive validity showed that peer/sibling victimization and sexual victimization predicted online grooming. Conclusions: This study promotes a better understanding of online grooming by exploring the association between different types of victimization.

THE EXPERIENCE OF SPECIAL TESTIMONY FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF ADOLESCENT GIRLS VICTIMS OF SEXUAL ABUSE

Public policies have been developed to assist children and adolescents who are witnesses or victims of different types of abuse. Among them, the Protected Listening Law implemented in Brazil the special testimony (ST), which is a welcoming way of listening to victims in hearing and which aims to protect against re-victimization. This exploratory-descriptive qualitative research aimed to understand how adolescent girls who were victims of sexual abuse, who went through mental health care understood their experience of being heard by the ST. Seven adolescent girls aged 12 to 17 years participated in the study. Interviews and information from medical records were used for data collection. A thematic analysis of the findings was carried out and two themes were obtained: experience with the ST and #takethetip. The appreciation of the data identified that the girls had negative expectations about the ST and felt anxiety, fear and sadness before it occurred. After the beginning of the hearing, they became calmer and at the end, they felt relieved. Despite the discomfort of speaking, they understand that it is important, including encouraging other adolescents to participate in the ST. Finally, they indicate that it is not necessary to change how the ST is organized. It is understood, therefore, that the assistance of specialized technicians and the organization of the courtroom are related to the process of relieving the anxiety of the participants throughout the ST, since it is not necessary to change the way the ST is organized.

Victim Recovery in Restorative Justice: A Theoretical Framework

Restorative justice was initially used for minor crimes, but it has been increasingly used to address the aftermath of violent crimes. Previous studies have indicated that restorative justice can be effective in reducing the harmful effects of violent victimization. However, there is limited research on how restorative justice can support victim recovery. This article presents a theoretical framework to better understand the relationship between victim recovery and restorative justice. The framework identifies core recovery factors that are common to victims of different types of violence, as well as those that are relevant to the restorative justice process. In addition, the framework highlights enabling factors that can facilitate the victim recovery process when present in restorative justice as well as inhibiting factors that can impede the victim recovery process if they are present in restorative justice.

Associations between Shyness and Victimization with Substance Use Outcomes in the National Comorbidity and Collaborative Psychiatric Epidemiological Surveys

Background : There is a lack of consensus among researchers on the association between shyness and substance use. This may be due to unexamined modifiers of this association, such as childhood victimization. Objective : The purpose of this study was to examine if experiencing different types of victimization (emotional, physical, sexual, and poly-victimization) modifies the association between shyness and substance use outcomes in adults. In this study, we performed moderation analyses to investigate whether victimization moderates the association between shyness and substance use/abuse. Data came from the National Comorbidity Survey Baseline (NCS-1; 1990-1992) and the Collaborative Psychiatric Epidemiological Surveys (CPES; 2001-2003). Substance use outcomes included were binge drinking, tobacco use, other drug use, and DSM-III-R (NCS-1)/DSM-IV (CPES) classifications of alcohol and drug abuse. Results : Results from NCS-1 supported a moderating role of childhood victimization on the relationship between shyness and tobacco use only, specifically for emotional (p = .031) and physical (p < .001) victimization, and poly-victimization (p < .001). Results from CPES showed a moderating role of lifetime sexual abuse for binge drinking (p = .017), other drug use (p = .028), and alcohol abuse (p = .004). For both datasets, the associations between shyness and substance use outcomes were stronger when there were no victimization histories. Conclusion : These findings give insight on the complexity of the interaction between shyness and victimization. Future research could focus on mechanisms, such as cognitive processes, that may contribute to interactions between shyness and victimization history on substance outcomes.

Feminicide in Women Victims of Violence during the Pandemic in Peru

The femicide in women victims of violence during the pandemic in Peru, aims to determine the increase in femicide during the pandemic. Femicide has been taking place for a long time, since this is an extreme point where many women have a violent death, this can be caused by their partner or ex-partner, and often by unknown persons with no link to the victims. Likewise, there are different types of victims and the typology of femicides. The sample was made up of all the women who were victims of femicide during the 2020 pandemic, a total of 137 cases of femicide in Peru, where they have been classied according to the place where the case occurred (macro-regions), their age (age group at they belong) and how the femicide occurred. The researchdesignisnon-experimentalwithaquantitative,descriptiveandretrospective approach. The search was carried out in information portals at the Peru level, thus nding that the INEI 2021 statistics book was the one that provided the most precise information regarding cases of femicide in Peru. In relation to the results obtained, a variation of cases of femicide during the pandemic in relation to previous years of -4% is observed. Being the most prevalent intimate femicide with ages from 18 to 29 years, thus stating that the victims suffered physical violence before the femicide was carried out.

Victimization among adolescents of female sex workers: findings from the children of at-risk parents (CARP) study in Uganda

BackgroundFemale sex workers (FSWs) live and work in high-risk environments, experience high levels of adversity, and have multigenerational trauma that can negatively affect their children. Yet not much is known about the prevalence of victimization (i.e., exposure to maltreatment and trauma) among children of FSWs. This study compared the prevalence of lifetime victimization among adolescents of FSWs and adolescents of non-FSWs in Gulu City, Northern Uganda.MethodsA comparative cross-sectional study was conducted among adolescents (10–17 years) enrolled in the Children of At-Risk Parents (CARP) study. This study included 147 adolescents of FSWs and 147 adolescents of non-FSWs selected for comparison in Gulu City, Northern Uganda. The adolescents of FSWs were identified through their mothers using respondent-driven sampling. Data on the residence of FSWs guided a proportionate stratified sampling of adolescents of non-FSWs. Using the Juvenile Victimization Questionnaire, we screened for 34 different types of victimization during participants’ lifetimes. Percentage point differences within groups of adolescents and comparison between adolescents of FSWs and non-FSWs were calculated using STATA version 14.1. Statistical significance was set to p < 0.05.Results99.3% of the participants experienced at least one form of lifetime victimization. The median number of lifetime victimizations was 12.4. Overall, lifetime victimization was higher among adolescents of FSWs than non-FSWs (13.4 vs. 11.5), male vs. female adolescents (13.4 vs. 11.9), and older [14–17 years] vs. younger (10–13 years) adolescents (14.0 vs. 11.7). Further, more adolescents of FSWs experienced lifetime victimization in the following domains and subdomains, all of which were statistically significant: kidnap (15.8% vs. 4.8%), emotional abuse (65.8% vs. 50.0%), emotional neglect (37.4% vs. 21.1%), physical intimidation (10.2% vs. 4.1%), relational aggression (36.4% vs. 18.4%), verbal aggression (68.7% vs. 46.9%), sexual victimization (31.3% vs. 17.7%), verbal sexual harassment (20.4% vs. 5.4%), exposure to murder scene (42.9% vs. 26.5%), witness to domestic violence (39.5% vs. 26.5%), and witness to the murder of relatives (31.3% vs. 21.1%). Conversely, more adolescents of non-FSWs experienced caregiver victimization than the adolescents of FSWs (98.0 vs. 92.5; p < 0.05).ConclusionsChildhood victimization is highly prevalent in Northern Uganda and disproportionately affects the adolescents of FSWs. Therefore, government and development partners should urgently develop policies and interventions targeting prevention, early detection, and timely management of victimization in this vulnerable population.

Did the prevalence of traditional school bullying increase after COVID-19? Evidence from a two-stage cross-sectional study before and during COVID-19 pandemic

BackgroundCOVID-19 has had a range of adverse effects on the behavior and mental health of adolescents globally, including bullying, anxiety and depression. However, there is a lack of comparative studies on the changes of school bullying before and during COVID-19 pandemic. ObjectiveTo examine the changes in traditional bullying before and during COVID-19 pandemic and reveal the related risk factors in Shantou, China. Participants and settingTwo samples of secondary school students were collected in 2018 and 2021 in Shantou, respectively. MethodsBullying history and risk behaviors of students were measured in the past six months. The χ2 test was used to analyze differences in baseline information and bullying types. The binary logistic regression with Forward LR method was used to analyze factors that affect the risk of bullying victimization and perpetration before and during COVID-19. ResultsA total of 5782 secondary school students were included, 3071 before COVID-19 pandemic and 2711 during COVID-19. The prevalence of different types of victimization and perpetration all increased during COVID-19 (P < 0.001). Boarding, being a lower secondary school student (as opposed to upper secondary school), being male (as opposed to female), drinking, and playing violent video games were shared risk factors for bullying victimization and perpetration. Living in an urban (as opposed to rural and island) was a risk factor for perpetration. Smoking was a risk factor for perpetration. All differences were statistically significant (P < 0.05). ConclusionsWe found that the prevalence of bullying victimization as well as perpetration increased during COVID-19. It suggests that we need to pay more attention to traditional school bullying prevention and control in China in the pandemic context.

Experiences of Bias Victimization Among People With Intellectual Disabilities.

Research has drawn attention to the stigma and high rates of victimization among people with intellectual disabilities (ID) and an overlap between bias and non-bias victimization. However, studies of bias events or hate crime involving persons with ID are scarce. Using a self-report measure, we analyze lifetime bias victimization in a sample of 260 adults diagnosed with ID (age M = 41.7, SD = 12.0; 59.2% men), of whom 92 experienced bias victimization (age M = 41.2, SD = 11.9; 54.3% men), and compare the number of different types of victimization and the poly-victimization status between bias and non-bias victims. We also examine the following features: the victim, offender(s), victim-offender relationship, and location. Results show that bias victims experience a higher number of different types of victimization than non-bias victims (M = 7.74 and 4.96, respectively; p <.001, rrb=.37, ξ=.42) and are four times more likely to be poly-victims than non-bias victims (odds ratio [OR] = 4.37; 95% CI, p <.001). Most of the victims experienced a number of bias victimization episodes (89.1%; n = 82), and more than a quarter were injured (27.2%, n = 25) as a result of the victimization. All the bias victimizations by strangers were carried out in public places, as were most of the bias victimizations by acquaintances. Schoolmates and work colleagues perpetrated attacks at school and in the workplace, respectively. More than half of the victims, 63% (n = 58), spoke of the experience with someone, but only one reported it to the authorities. The paper provides a valuable descriptive and bivariate analysis of bias victimization of people with ID. The findings will help to understand bias violence against this population, highlighting the need for targeted and effective interventions.

Cancer Stem Cells as a Considerable Barrier in Anti-Cancer-Treatments

Today in mankind’s modern society cancer is one of the heterogonous critical leading death causes in the world. Annually many victims of different types of cancer are being recorded throughout the world. Many researchers did many researches and experiments to find the causes and treatment for it. According to the reports it is estimated that more than 10 million deaths were recorded in 2020. One of the challenging studies in cancer research is to examine the role of cancer stem cells in this process and treatment. Cancer Stem Cells (CSCs) are a group of tumor cells that can possess tumor growth initiation and increase the bulk populations of non-tumorigenic cancer cell progeny through differentiation. Some of the particular characteristics give them the capability to be resistant to radio and chemotherapies. This mini-review aims to investigate the recent researchers from 2019 to 2022 to get a better view of the function and specific options which can help to act as a barrier in the treatment process and examine good suggestions in order to get more success in the near future.

History of Victimization, Behavioral and Emotional Problems among Juvenile Delinquents in Child Correction Homes

The juvenile justice system identifies youth in conflict with the law as different from the adult criminal population. The Correctional and re-integrative approach forms the basis of a good juvenile justice system. The rationale for such interventions remains to identify risk factors and protective factors for delinquency. History of victimization has been recognized as one of the risk factors for juvenile delinquency. In this context, a cross-sectional study was conducted with 160 adolescents (with a history of juvenile delinquency) residing in Child Correction Homes of Bhaktapur and Kaski districts to study the history of victimization its effect on behavioral and emotional problems. Nepalese versions of the Reduced Item Juvenile Victimization Questionnaire (JVQ) and Strength and Difficulty Questionnaire (SDQ) were used for the study. Of the participants (N=149), 93.96 % reported at least 1 victimization and 79.19% reported lifetime exposure to 3 or more different types of victimization. Total score in JVQ was a significant predictor for Hyperactivity, Emotional Problems, Peer Problems, and Total Difficulty Score of SDQ. These findings point toward the need to further study these aspects of delinquency in the Nepalese context.

Violência, discriminação e práticas de saúde sexual entre homens adolescentes que fazem sexo com homens, mulheres transgêneros e travestis em três cidades do Brasil

The HIV epidemic has a disproportionate impact on adolescent and young men who have sex with men (AMSM) and transgender women and travestis (ATGW), with an increased HIV prevalence over the last 10 years. Violence affects the lives of these populations, undermining their ability to self-care and making them more vulnerable to HIV infection. In this study, we aimed to examine the association between different types of victimization by violence and discrimination and sexual health practices of these adolescent populations in steady and casual relationships. We conducted a cross-sectional study using baseline data from the cohort of PrEP1519 project. We used the mean score of sexual health practices as our outcome and the cumulative score of discrimination (within family, community, education, religious, online and public spaces) and violence (physical, sexual and intimate partner) as our exposure variable. We performed linear regression analyses to estimate the association between exposure and outcome. We found that 90% of AMSM and 95% of ATGW experienced at least one form of violence in the three months prior to this study and about 45% of ATGW suffered sexual violence during the same period. Experiencing discrimination within healthcare settings (from facilities or providers) was negatively associated with sexual health practices. Discrimination and violence negatively affect sexual health practices. HIV prevention and care of AMSM and ATGW people should involve listening to their experiences and addressing discrimination and violence in this population.

Examining the Role of Low Self-Control and Psychopathy in Explaining Poly-Victimization

ABSTRACT Although there has been research on the correlates of poly-victimization, studies have not fully considered the role of personality as a potential risk factor. The current study sought to address this gap by examining the personality characteristics of low self-control and psychopathy to assess how individuals who experience poly-victimization, defined as two or more different types of victimization, differ from non-victims and victims of only a single crime type. The sample was comprised of 872 undergraduate students at a southern university in the United States. Notably, 31.1% of victims experienced poly-victimization, including property, physical, or sexual harms. Consistent with prior work, lifestyle risk in the form of criminal behavior and adverse childhood experiences were associated with greater odds of poly-victimization. In addition, self-control proved to be a relatively robust correlate of poly-victimization. Psychopathy – measured as an aggregate measure and by separate subscale factors – was not associated with risk for poly-victimization. In this way, some subscales of personality traits such as low self-control seem to be important for explaining why some individuals experience poly-victimization. The findings provide preliminary evidence for personality traits as an important consideration in distinguishing poly-victimization from single- and non-victimization experiences in addition to other theoretically relevant factors.

Typology of Victimization against Women on Adolescent Girls in Three Contexts: Dating Offline, Dating Online, and Sexual Harassment Online.

Defining the typologies of adolescent girls in relation to different types of victimization against women could be very useful for prevention. Almost all the typologies previously elaborated on this topic define the typologies from situations of dating victimization. This study used cluster analysis to establish for the first time a typology of adolescent girl victimization against women that included dating violence offline, dating violence online, and sexual harassment online outside a relationship by means of a comparative analysis of behavior between those who had suffered this violence and the population at large. The participants were 3.532 Spanish teenage girls aged 14–18 with experience of relationships with boys. Three discrete, identifiable types were obtained: the first group (63.8%), non-victim girls; the second group (29.4%), victims of sexual harassment online outside a relationship but with a low incidence of dating victimization; the third group (6.8%), victims in the three contexts. The logistic regression analysis showed that risky sexual behavior online was the main risk condition for inclusion in the second and third groups (compared to the non-victim group), followed by low self-esteem (for the second group) and age (for both groups). Other variables that also contributed to predicting membership victim groups were health complaints, feminine gender role stress, justification of male dominance and violence, visiting risky websites, and problematic internet use. These results show the importance of including the prevention of such problems in order to eradicate violence against women in adolescence who have grown up with digital technologies.

Victimization and depressive symptoms in early adolescence: The role of perceived school climate.

Nearly 4 million adolescents in the United States experience clinical depression, and this alarming rate has increased in recent years. Adolescents' perceptions of their school's climate may moderate the association between victimization and depressive symptoms, including suicidality; however, it is unclear whether perceived school climate would act as a buffer or intensifier of the association between victimization and depressive symptoms. The present study examined how different types of victimization (traditional, cyber, and homophobic) are associated with depressive symptoms in middle schoolers (N = 1,151), and whether these associations are buffered or exacerbated by how adolescents perceive school climate. Multiple moderated regression analyses revealed traditional and cyber victimization were significantly positively associated with depressive symptoms, whereas homophobic victimization was not directly associated with depressive symptoms. Further, perceived school climate moderated these associations, exacerbating the link between cyber victimization and depressive symptoms, and buffering the link between homophobic victimization and depression. Results support the importance of middle schoolers' perceptions of school climate in understanding the associations between victimization experiences and depressive symptoms. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Abuse, neglect and witnessing violence during childhood within justice-involved samples: A meta-analysis of the prevalence and nature of gender differences and similarities

Justice-involved populations have often experienced abuse and neglect and have often been exposed to violence in the home. However, reported prevalence rates have been inconsistent and boys and men, and girls and women reportedly experience different types of victimization, although results have been mixed. A meta-analysis was conducted to synthesize the literature on childhood victimization prevalence rates for boys and men, and girls and women. A systematic review of the literature led to 62 studies (170 effect sizes) that reported the rate of physical, sexual, and emotional abuse, neglect, and exposure to violence among justice-involved samples (230,581 boys and men and 74,608 girls and women). Rates of abuse, neglect and witnessed violence were high for both genders. The prevalence rates were higher for girls and women than boys and men in all categories: physical abuse (43.8% vs. 34.3%), sexual abuse (35.4% vs. 13.1%), emotional abuse (44.6% vs. 29.0%), child neglect (35.3% vs. 27.3%), witnessed violence (47.6% vs. 41.4%) and any childhood victimization (59.9% vs. 46.4%). Differences were statistically significant for physical, sexual, and emotional abuse, and neglect. Despite the methodological limitations associated with many of the primary studies, the results highlight the need to implement trauma-responsive policies in correctional settings.

Using Health data to analyse repeat victimisation in Scotland.

ObjectiveThe aim of this project is to analyse temporal patterns of repeat violent victimisation (RVV) in Scotland using administrative data and explore the extent to which these patterns are associated with underlying health vulnerabilities (related to mental health and problematic alcohol and/or drug use) and vary by individual socio-demographic characteristics.&#x0D; ApproachViolence in Scotland, and especially RVV, is a ‘key public health priority’. However, very little is known about the link between violence and other health vulnerabilities at an individual level, which may be useful in informing prevention approaches. This paper uses data on violence-related ambulance call-outs linked to hospital records containing information on wider health vulnerabilities. We use survival mixture models to identify and characterise population sub-groups, based on time to repeated violent episodes and explore how different health-related factors are associated with RVV and how this varies across sub-populations.&#x0D; ResultsWe identify two classes of RVV with two distinct survival trajectories: a ‘low vulnerability’ class and a ‘high vulnerability’ class. People in the high vulnerability class experienced RVV more quickly and were more likely to have underlying mental health conditions and/or problematic drug or alcohol use than those in the low vulnerability class. The association between socio-demographic characteristics and RVV differed across the two classes, with significant inequality in RVV for high-risk individuals between those in the most and the least affluent communities. The findings suggest that the first 6 months after the index event is a critical period of RVV for people in the high-risk group, but there may be different exposure mechanisms for different types of victims.&#x0D; ConclusionBetter use of administrative data from health sources could help improve our understanding and identification of repeat victims of violence. The ability to identify whether victims are likely to be ‘high-risk’ or ‘low-risk’ could inform the design of focused strategic approaches and interventions aimed at reducing repeat violent victimization.