Different Types Of Policies Research Articles

THE (IN)COMPATIBILITY OF INSTITUTIONAL REFORM AND INCLUSIVENESS: THE CASE OF THE NETHERLANDS

The quest for a more democratic political system in the Netherlands since the 1960s led to emotional debates in both chambers of Parliament. Discussion, however, mainly took place in a long list of committees, beginning with expert committees in the 1970s and 1980s, committees of party leaders in the 1990s and committees of lay citizens in the first decade of this century. Different political parties, however, were committed to different types of policies. Parties on the left argued successfully for more participatory types of political arrangements such as referendums and consultative types of policy making. Women's groups were also moderately successful in their demands for the inclusion of women in politics where incremental policies and voluntary quotas in political parties preempted the need for mandatory quotas. A third type of policy, concerned with the accountability of the political system, introducing constituencies in the electoral system and direct election of mayors and other types of officeholders, was less successful. The authors argue that these debates largely evolved alongside each other, and that the question whether political reform enhances the inclusiveness of the political system in terms of gender, and even more in terms of ethnicity, has been sadly absent from the political agenda.

Searching for Common Ground between Supporters and Opponents of Affirmative Action

Supporters and opponents of affirmative action are often characterized as debating about a single, consensually understood type of affirmative action. However, supporters and opponents instead may have different types of policies in mind when thinking about affirmative action and may actually agree on specific manifestations of affirmative action policies more than is commonly believed. A survey conducted using a student sample and a sample from the broader Chicago‐area community showed that affirmative action policies can be characterized into merit‐violating versus merit‐upholding manifestations. Supporters of affirmative action in general were more likely to think of affirmative action in its merit‐upholding manifestations, whereas opponents were more likely to think of the merit‐violating manifestations. However, both supporters and opponents showed more support for merit‐upholding rather than merit‐violating manifestations of affirmative action. The same pattern of results was upheld even when splitting the samples into those who endorsed negative racial attitudes versus those who did not, suggesting that even those who may be considered racist will endorse affirmative action policies that uphold merit values. The results are discussed in terms of the importance of clarifying the political discourse about what affirmative action is and what it is designed to do.

Who Pays? Who Gains? How do Costs and Benefits Shape the Policy Influence of the European Parliament?*

This article contributes to the burgeoning literature on the policy influence of the European Parliament (EP) by testing and further developing an analytical framework that investigates the links between EP influence and the costs and benefits delivered by different types of policy. A set of hypotheses is derived from the literature and tested empirically against four case studies. The key findings are that the EP is more able to exercise influence in the regulatory than the distributive policy field, but that in both cases the status and nature of the cost-payers and beneficiaries of EP amendments are key determinants of influence.

The Politics of Presidential Agendas

Past research holds that if presidents are to increase their success in Congress, they must set the policy agenda in their favor. But what determines the propensity of presidents to propose or support different policies? Because presidents influence the agenda-setting stage of the policy process, presidents develop their yearly domestic policy agendas in anticipation of each policy’s success or failure in Congress. After all, presidents want to emphasize their strengths to achieve their goal of policy enactment in Congress. From this assumption, I devise a typology of long-term and important presidential policies, and argue that political limitations and fiscal constraints influence the president’s yearly domestic policy agenda. I show that presidents offer different types of policies as part of their yearly domestic agendas given Congressional makeup and the federal budget deficit.

GATT Article XX and Proximity of Interest: Determining the Subject Matter of Paragraphs b and g

The interpretation of GATT Article XX has begun to play a critical role in defining the relationship among international trade law, international environmental law, and general international law. Different thresholds for provisional justification of trade measures under paragraphs XX(b) and (g) suggest that each paragraph should address different types of policies and measures. However, jurisprudence on paragraph XX(g) appears to make paragraph XX(b) somewhat redundant and raises the issue of whether paragraphs XX(b) and XX(g) have been interpreted in accordance with the rule of effective treaty interpretation. This article develops an analytical approach to take in deciding whether to address a trade measure under GATT paragraph XX(b) or (g), based on the proximity of interest between the country that applies trade restrictions and the environmental or health problem that is addressed. I propose that the subject matter be assigned based on the location of the environmental concern, with domestic concerns addressed in XX(b) and transnational or global concerns under XX(g). An analysis of Article XX, applying the rules of treaty interpretation of the Vienna Convention, supports this interpretation. The adopted body of GATT and WTO jurisprudence also supports this interpretation, with the exception of one case.

Integrating Guidance into Relational Reinforcement Learning

Reinforcement learning, and Q-learning in particular, encounter two major problems when dealing with large state spaces. First, learning the Q-function in tabular form may be infeasible because of the excessive amount of memory needed to store the table, and because the Q-function only converges after each state has been visited multiple times. Second, rewards in the state space may be so sparse that with random exploration they will only be discovered extremely slowly. The first problem is often solved by learning a generalization of the encountered examples (e.g., using a neural net or decision tree). Relational reinforcement learning (RRL) is such an approach; it makes Q-learning feasible in structural domains by incorporating a relational learner into Q-learning. The problem of sparse rewards has not been addressed for RRL. This paper presents a solution based on the use of “reasonable policies” to provide guidance. Different types of policies and different strategies to supply guidance through these policies are discussed and evaluated experimentally in several relational domains to show the merits of the approach.

Adverse Selection in Insurance Markets: Policyholder Evidence from the U.K. Annuity Market

This paper presents new evidence on the importance of adverse selection in insurance markets. We use a unique data set, consisting of all annuity policies sold by a large U.K. insurance company since the early 1980s, to analyze mortality differences across groups of individuals who purchased different types of policies. We find systematic relationships between ex-post mortality and annuity policy characteristics, such as whether the annuity will make payments to the estate in the event of an untimely death and whether the payments from the annuity rise over time. These mortality patterns are consistent with models of asymmetric information in insurance markets. We find no evidence of mortality differences, however, across annuities of different size, as measured by the initial annual payment from the annuity. We also study differences in the pricing of different annuity products, and find that the pricing of various features of annuity contracts is consistent with the self-selection patterns we find in mortality rates. Our results therefore suggest that many specific features of insurance contracts can serve as screening mechanisms. This implies that insurance markets may be characterized by adverse selection, even when stratifying policyholders by the amount of payment in case of a claim does not support the existence of selection effects.

Growing Pains: Cross-National Variation in Sex Segregation in Sixteen Developing Countries

Using an occupational scheme with 43 categories (rather than the typical seven broad categories), this paper provides new information on cross-national patterns of occupational sex segregation in sixteen developing countries. Cross-national variation is investigated through the lens of a new theoretical framework that incorporates the importance of state policies that influence women's integration across the occupational structure. Multivariate analyses examine how three state policies (maternity leave, antidiscrimination, and protective legislation) are related to levels and patterns of segregation, while controlling for existing explanations for differences in segregation in developing countries: economic structure (economic development, dependency, and size of the service sector) and human capital. State policies were the strongest determinant of cross-national differences in levels of segregation, but two types of legislation had opposite effects: maternity leave is negatively related to levels of segregation while antidiscrimination legislation is associated with higher levels of segregation. Analyses of occupation-specific patterns of segregation reiterated the importance of state policies, demonstrating how different types of policies have segregative and integrative effects throughout the occupational structure. Results also provided strong evidence of a culling effect, in which women's representation in higher-status occupations declines as the percentage of women in the labor force increases.

Food and nutrition policies of Nordic countries: how have they been developed and what evidence substantiates the development of these policies?

The present paper addresses the emergence and development of Nordic food and nutrition policies, with some reference to the types of nutrition policies characteristic of other North European countries. Nutrition programmes aimed at dietary change have a long history of public responsibility in several Nordic and North European countries. The extent of involvement, the orientation and (indication of) success have, however, varied considerably between countries. First, different types of policies are characterised by their choice of programmes and measures, e.g. information campaigns v. market regulation or catering and public services. Second, the distinctions are associated not only with programmes, but also with the status and validity of nutritional advice and dietary guidelines in public policy making. Third, when focusing on how and on what grounds the governments have developed nutrition policies, it is evident that while more or less the same participants and issues are involved, their roles and relationships may be different. In this case the role and involvement of nutritional expertise and scientific arguments in various countries will be discussed. Finally, nutrition policies may entail conflicts of interest, particularly when health concerns are confronted with food industry and agricultural interests. This situation is quite evident in the question of animal fat. The present paper addresses how these issues have been dealt with quite differently in various countries.

Policy Issues in Environmental Health Disputes

This article compares the state of policies concerning three different diseases/conditions with putative environmental factors: asthma, breast cancer, and Gulf War-related illnesses. By comparing the state of four different types of policies--research funding, regulations, compensation/treatment, and citizen participation--the authors demonstrate the dynamic relationship between policies and health social movements. They identify four factors that shape policy for these three diseases: the science base supporting the environmental causation hypothesis, prevalence and perception of risk, the sources of support for the environmental causation hypothesis, and the strength of health social movements. All four factors contribute to policy outcomes, but they find the strength of health social movements to be particularly important for the three diseases they examine. In some cases, social movement activity can be more important than the strength of the science base in terms of policy outcome success.

International Coordination of Macroeconomic Policies: Still Alive in the New Millennium?

In this paper we provide two building blocks for an analysis of international policy coordination: (1) a survey of models of policy coordination, and (2) an account of experience with policy coordination among the G-7 countries and within Europe since the breakdown of the Bretton Woods System. Using these building blocks, we investigate the correspondence between the models and experience and attempt to draw lessons for both the modelers and the practitioners. We find that the correspondence is close enough that the models help in analyzing several instances of actual policy coordination, but that the correspondence could be even closer. As for lessons for modelers, we suggest that they devote more attention to the analysis of information exchange, a key feature of practical policy coordination; to the coordination of different types of policies; to the ramifications of political divisions within countries; and to the implications of market irrationality and speculative bubbles. As for lessons for policy makers, we suggest that they give more consideration to the choice of their ultimate objectives, in particular to whether the current account should always be close to balance; to achieving better internal policies; and to the greater use of fiscal policy as a stabilization tool.

International Coordination of Macroeconomic Policies: Still Alive in the New Millennium?

In this paper we provide two building blocks for an analysis of international policy coordination: (1) a survey of models of policy coordination, and (2) an account of experience with policy coordination among the G-7 countries and within Europe since the breakdown of the Bretton Woods System. Using these building blocks, we investigate the correspondence between the models and experience and attempt to draw lessons for both the modelers and the practitioners. We find that the correspondence is close enough that the models help in analyzing several instances of actual policy coordination, but that the correspondence could be even closer. As for lessons for modelers, we suggest that they devote more attention to the analysis of information exchange, a key feature of practical policy coordination; to the coordination of different types of policies; to the ramifications of political divisions within countries; and to the implications of market irrationality and speculative bubbles. As for lessons for policy makers, we suggest that they give more consideration to the choice of their ultimate objectives, in particular to whether the current account should always be close to balance; to achieving better internal policies; and to the greater use of fiscal policy as a stabilization tool.

An analysis of harvest strategies and information needs in the purse seine fishery for the Brazilian sardine

This paper evaluates a range of constant harvest rate, constant escapement, and effort control strategies in the purse seine fishery for the Brazilian sardine by accounting for uncertainties in the processes controlling recruitment and catchability. Control strategies are evaluated with a delay-difference simulation model representing three hypotheses about sardine stock–recruitment relationship, involving the effect of spawning stock size, depensation and cyclic environmental regimes. Strategies are compared by the predicted average catches, catch variability, and probability of stock collapse. Results from simulations are also used to evaluate the relative merits of different types of policies and to evaluate the relative values of reducing the uncertainties about sardine recruitment dynamics. Better understanding of the processes controlling recruitment is mostly needed if the fishery is to continue being managed by effort control. Constant harvest rate policies provide better trade-off among the performance indicators and appears more robust to uncertainties on the prevailing ecological processes controlling recruitment. Results from this analysis are used to discuss the type of research that would most likely provide the information needed to improve the quality of decisions in the purse seine fishery.

Why Some Workers Remain in the Labor Force Beyond the Typical Age of Retirement

This study explored the ways in which race, gender, and age moderated the effects of several determinants of labor force participation among people ages 60 to 80. The role of race, gender, and age in moderating the effect of various factors on labor force participation was examined using the 1998 Health and Retirement Study (HRS) data. Binomial logistic regression models were used to evaluate the interaction between race, gender, age and other determinants of labor force participation. The effects of various factors on labor force participation differed by gender, race, and age. The negative effects of low education and poor health, respectively, were stronger for women and blacks. Also, the positive effect of low non-wage income was weaker for older workers, probably due partly to poorer health. Our findings suggest that different types of policies would help to encourage labor force participation among different groups. Because lack of access to employment may deter continued work among subgroups such as blacks and women with low education, job training or job search programs might provide incentives for employment in these groups. Additionally, employer flexibility regarding part-time work and work demands might make continued work attractive for more older workers.

PARTISANSHIP AND THE PURSE: THE MONEY COMMITTEES AND PROCEDURES IN THE POST‐REFORM CONGRESS

We analyze floor decision making on taxing and spending legislation during the 96th, 100th, and 104th Congresses in order to assess how electoral forces, fiscal pressures, and institutional change have affected the role of the money committees. Examination of decision making on legislation from these committees provides insight into how different committees and different institutions responded to this volatile post‐reform environment. We find that partisanship on floor decision making increased considerably over time across committee legislation in both chambers. Still, partisan conflict tended to be greater on taxing legislation than on appropriating legislation. This reflects the differential impact of partisanship across the different types of policies under the jurisdiction of the money committees. By the 104th, patterns of differences were particularly pronounced across committees, rather than across chambers, suggesting the common exogenous forces at work affecting both institutions similarly. In addition, we find that members adapted procedural devices in both chambers for partisan purposes in order to limit amending activity on legislation from the money committees. Together, these changes reflect both the dramatically altered decision making process and the increasing tendency toward a party‐dominated role for the money committees.

The Iranian Economy during the Second World War: The Devaluation Controversy

A hotly debated controversy in Iranian history is the devaluation of the rial immediately after the occupation of Iran by the Allied forces. Dr Mosharraf Naficy, the finance minister who is associated with this devaluation, is criticized severely and even branded a traitor and foreign agent. He, on the other hand, has defended his decision with regard to the exchange rates and claimed that there was no devaluation. The Second World War as an episode in the modem history of Iran has received little attention.' In particular, the economic condition of the country is rarely mentioned let alone studied. The present article aims at making a small contribution to the subject by studying the controversial issue of the devaluation of the rial. Aside from shedding light on the economic history of Iran and contributing to the history of the Second World War in Iran, this article will be of interest for two additional reasons. First, as will be seen, opponents in this controversy played prominent roles in Iran in the years following the war. Naficy was the first head of the Plan Organization in Iran while Dr Mosaddiq, who was most vocal in criticizing Naficy, later on led the oil nationalization movement to a disastrous conclusion for Iran. More generally, they stood for two different types of policy and conduct of public affairs, the first based on rational reasoning and practising the art of the possible, and the second on whipping up people's emotions, making exaggerated claims, and branding every opponent a foreign agent. In the extreme the latter policy rests on demagoguery. Mohammad Ali Forouqi who became prime minister after the invasion of Iran and was able to negotiate favourable terms for his country during a most difficult time, and Ahmad Qavam who single-handedly saved Azerbaijan for Iran practised the first type of policy. A prominent practitioner of the second type of policy was, of course, Dr Mosaddiq. Needless to say, in Iran, and perhaps in the whole of the Middle East, the second group have always been most popular. The investigation of the devaluation controversy sheds light on these policies, the personalities of different players, and their knowledge of economics.

Federalism, political structure, and public policy in the United States and Canada

Two of the three large countries on the North American continent—the United States and Canada—share a number of similarities that often make it difficult for the untrained observer to differentiate between the two nations. On the surface, the two are structured similarly as federal systems that, by definition, exhibit shared power between the national government and provincial or state political entities. Although there are other important social and economic characteristics of the two countries that help explain differences in policy processes and outcomes, it is the contention of this article that one gets the clearest sense of what Elazar has called “thinking federal” by utilizing an analytical approach that joins questions related to federalism with some conceptual frameworks of the public policy field. Two frameworks undergird the argument in this article—the Lowi typology of different types of policies and Deil Wright's typology of different models that describe the American intergovernmental system. In both countries, policies must be sensitive to the greater interdependencies between units of government as well as to linkages between policy areas. The mechanisms or instrumentalities for dealing with policy issues are intrinsically complex. It is also clear that the intergovernmental networks that exist in both the U.S. and Canada are composed of an array of actors. The differing political structures of the systems do impact the types of intergovernmental policies that have emerged in the two countries. The executive dominance so imbedded in Canadian governments has contributed to their ability to adopt and implement certain controversial redistributive policies, such as a national health insurance program. By contrast, the fragmentation of the U.S. system makes redistributive policies more difficult.

96/02311 Lending terms, debt concessions, and developing countries' resource extraction

Abstract We study the relationship between natural resources extraction, borrowing, and debt for a developing country that possesses a natural resource, in a two-period framework, and study how an outside ‘donor’ may affect the rate of extraction of the resource, through different types of policies. With no donor intervention the resource is always fully extracted over the two periods. unconditional debt forgiveness and interest rate subsidies have weak effects on the extraction rate, and may never induce the country to save the resource permanently. Conditional mechanisms have much greater effetts, and may in many cases induce the country to save the resource beyond period 2. Generally interest rate subsidies are more powerful than pure debt forgiveness, by inducing more extraction postponement or permanent saving of the resource per unit of money spent by the donor.

Lending terms, debt concessions, and developing countries' resource extraction

We study the relationship between natural resources extraction, borrowing, and debt for a developing country that possesses a natural resource, in a two-period framework, and study how an outside ‘donor’ may affect the rate of extraction of the resource, through different types of policies. With no donor intervention the resource is always fully extracted over the two periods. unconditional debt forgiveness and interest rate subsidies have weak effects on the extraction rate, and may never induce the country to save the resource permanently. Conditional mechanisms have much greater effetts, and may in many cases induce the country to save the resource beyond period 2. Generally interest rate subsidies are more powerful than pure debt forgiveness, by inducing more extraction postponement or permanent saving of the resource per unit of money spent by the donor.

Partisanship as information

Intuitively, we associate different political parties with different types of policy. In contrast, this paper shows that in the absence of differential costs of membership among parties (that is, if party membership ischeap talk), party labels cannot perfectly signal the ideologies of candidates. However, under certain conditions parties can signal candidate types imperfectly. The paper therefore also provides an example of how costless communication can be effective in games of partial conflict.