Different Levels Of Tolerance Research Articles

The involvement of cyclotides in the heavy metal tolerance of Viola spp.

The Violaceae family is rich in metal-tolerant species and species producing cyclic peptides (cyclotides) that are linked to the resistance to biotic factors. Plants that inhabit areas polluted with heavy metals have developed various mechanisms of tolerance. To test the role of cyclotides in protection against abiotic factors, including heavy metals, cell suspension cultures of Viola species/genotypes (V. lutea ssp. westfalica, V. tricolor, V. arvensis, and V. uliginosa), representing different levels of tolerance to heavy metals (from the most tolerant-MET to the least tolerant populations/species-NMET), were used. The relative abundances of the cyclotides in the control, untreated cell suspensions of all the selected species/genotypes, and cells treated with Zn or Pb (200 µM or 2000 µM) for 24 h or 72 h were determined via MALDI-MS. Transmission electron microscopy with X-ray microanalysis was used to detect putative co-localization of the cyclotides with Zn or Pb in the cells of V. tricolor treated with the highest concentration of heavy metals for 72 h. Cyclotide biosynthesis was dependent on the type of heavy metal and its concentration, time of treatment, plant species, and population type (MET vs. NMET). It was positively correlated with the level of tolerance of particular Viola species. The increased production of cyclotides was observed in the cells of metallophyte species, mostly in Zn-treated cells. The nonmetallophyte—V. uliginosa presented a decrease in the production of cyclotides independent of the dose and duration of the metal treatment. Cyclotides co-localized with Pb more evidently than with Zn, suggesting that cyclotides have heavy metal affinity. V. lutea ssp. westfalica transcriptome mining yielded 100 cyclotide sequences, 16 known and 84 novel named viwe 1–84. These findings support the hypothesis that cyclotides are involved in certain mechanisms of plant tolerance to heavy metals.

EFFECT OF DIFFERENT LEVELS OF SALT AND DROUGHT STRESSES ON GENE EXPRESSION OF TWO TOLERANCE-DIFFERENT TOMATO CULTIVARS IN VITRO

A lab experiment was conducted at the Plant Tissue Culture Lab / College of Agricultural Engineering Sciences / University of Baghdad. This experiment was aimed to investigate gene expression index in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) after preparation of salt and simulated drought stresses. Two tomato cultivars were selected which claimed to exhibit different levels of tolerance toward abiotic stresses designated as salt-tolerant Yassamine (Y) and salt-sensitive GS12 (G) to assess the test. Seven day-old seedlings from both cultivars were grown in MS media supplemented with four concentrations of NaCl at 0, 50, 100 and 150 mM and four concentrations of PEG at 0, 10, 20, and 30% for 48 hours. The results were showed that Y cultivar exhibited more proline secretion and chlorophyll content when compared with G. In addition, Y cultivar showed less ion leakage and less affected by elevated abiotic stresses in term of seedling weight variation when compared to G counterparts. The SDS-PAGE gel analysis showed that Y cultivar showed more band intensity when compared with G suggested more corresponding gene expression of tolerant protein against abiotic stresses.

Coevolution of Age-Structured Tolerance and Virulence

Hosts can evolve a variety of defences against parasitism, including resistance (which prevents or reduces the spread of infection) and tolerance (which protects against virulence). Some organisms have evolved different levels of tolerance at different life-stages, which is likely to be the result of coevolution with pathogens, and yet it is currently unclear how coevolution drives patterns of age-specific tolerance. Here, we use a model of tolerance-virulence coevolution to investigate how age structure influences coevolutionary dynamics. Specifically, we explore how coevolution unfolds when tolerance and virulence (disease-induced mortality) are age-specific compared to when these traits are uniform across the host lifespan. We find that coevolutionary cycling is relatively common when host tolerance is age-specific, but cycling does not occur when tolerance is the same across all ages. We also find that age-structured tolerance can lead to selection for higher virulence in shorter-lived than in longer-lived hosts, whereas non-age-structured tolerance always leads virulence to increase with host lifespan. Our findings therefore suggest that age structure can have substantial qualitative impacts on host–pathogen coevolution.

Comparison of the Differences in Tolerance to Drought Stress across Five Clematis Species Based on Seed Germination and Seedling Growth

Plants of the Clematis genus are attractive ornamental plants due to their various flower colors and patterns, and they play an important role as ground cover plants in landscaping. However, the application of Clematis plants in landscaping in arid and semi-arid areas is limited. This study used five common wild Clematis species in Gansu Province as experimental materials, including Clematistangutica, Clematis glauca, Clematis intricata, Clematis nannophylla, and Clematis fruticosa. By simulating different intensities of drought stress with polyethylene glycol (PEG), the germination behavior of seeds and the physiological and biochemical responses of seedlings of these five species to drought stress were observed. The results showed that 15% PEG stress significantly inhibited the seed germination of the five species, which was also the drought threshold for seed germination of C. fruticosa. C. tangutica exhibited the strongest tolerance to drought stress in seed germination. Seedlings of the five Clematis plants showed different levels of tolerance to drought stress, mainly demonstrating higher tolerance to 10% and 20% concentrations of PEG stress, while a 30% concentration of PEG stress caused varying degrees of damage to the seedlings of the five Clematis species. PCA analysis indicated that seedlings of C. intricata and C. glauca had higher scores under drought stress. These findings can provide a theoretical basis for the selection of urban landscaping plant species in arid and semi-arid regions of northwest China.

Combined Effects of Drought and Low Temperature on Germination and Seedling Growth of Melon Cultivars

The study aimed to determine the effects of drought (0.0, -2.0, -4.0, and -6.0 bar PEG 6000) and low temperature (18°C) on the germination and early seedling growth of three melon cultivars (Kırkağaç 589, Hasanbey 1, and Toros Sarıbal). Germination percentage, mean germination time, germination index, root length, shoot length, fresh and dry weight of the seedling, and vigor index of the melon cultivars were investigated. The results showed significant effects of low temperature and drought stress on the germination and seedling growth of melon cultivars. As temperature decreased and drought increased, the germination percentage decreased, and mean germination time was delayed. Drought stress led to a decrease in germination percentage, index, and all investigated seedling growth parameters, while the response of melon cultivars to drought stress varied. Seedling growth was more affected by low temperature than germination. Low temperature decreased germination percentage from 87.2% to 63.7% and seedling fresh weight from 140 mg/plant to 64 mg/plant. Each increase in drought levels resulted in a decrease in germination and seedling growth parameters of melon cultivars. Any seedling growth was not observed in Hasanbey 1 and Toros Sarıbal at -6.0 bar at 18°C. Melon cultivars showed different levels of tolerance to drought stress during germination and seedling growth stages, while they could maintain it up to -4.0 bar. It was concluded that Kırkağaç 589 germinated and grew better under drought stress at both optimum and low temperatures.

Peculiarities of decision-making by persons with high and low levels of tolerance

Abstract: the article examines the peculiarities of decision-making by people with different levels of tolerance. Tolerance is unity in diversity, it is a quality that is a humanistic component of an individual and is determined by his valuable attitude towards others. It represents an attitude towards a highly moral type of relationship, which is manifested in a person's actions. The purpose of this work was a theoretical-empirical study of the psychological features of decision-making by individuals with different levels of tolerance. Diagnostics of decision-making indicators and tolerance indicators was carried out with the help of: "Melbourne Decision-Making Questionnaire", "Personal Decision-Making Factors", "Decision-Making Questionnaire", "Qualitative Tolerance Indicators Test-Questionnaire". Correlation analysis made it possible to establish the nature of interdependence between the studied indicators - tolerance and decision-making. The use of qualitative data analysis made it possible to identify groups of people with a high and low level of tolerance using the "aces" method and to draw up their characteristics. Individuals with a high level of tolerance demonstrate a high level of attitude to complex tasks and novelty, have a high readiness to adapt to an uncertain situation, are able to change their plans in new conditions. People with a low level of tolerance have a tendency to spontaneity, impulsiveness when making a decision.

Образ будущего у молодёжи с различным уровнем толерантности к неопределённости

Образ будущего у молодёжи с различным уровнем толерантности к неопределённости

Low phosphorus impact on Moso bamboo (Phyllostachys edulis) root morphological polymorphism and expression pattern of the related genes.

Moso bamboo typically grows in phosphorus (P)-deficient soil that limits its growth and development. In this study, 10 Moso bamboo genotypes (Ph-1 to Ph-10) were evaluated for their responses to P deficiency during the seedling stage by growing them in both P-sufficient and P-deficient conditions. Adaptive responses to low P (LP) conditions were observed in the majority of genotypes. Under P deficiency conditions, the total biomass decreased in several genotypes, but at the same time, the root-to-shoot ratio increased. Principal component analysis identified two main comprehensive traits (PC1 and PC2) related to the root volume and surface area and P concentration and accumulation. Based on the analysis, two genotypes (Ph-6 and Ph-10) were identified with significantly different levels of tolerance to P deficiency. The results revealed that the genotype Ph-10 responded to P deficiency by significantly increasing the root surface area and volume, while simultaneously reducing the number of root cortex cells when compared with the genotype Ph-6, which showed the lowest tolerance (intolerant). The genotype Ph-10 exhibited a robust response to external LP conditions, marked by elevated expression levels of PHOSPHATE TRANSPORTERs and SYG1/PHO81/XPR1s. In situ Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) analysis also revealed distinct tissue-specific expression patterns of the genes in the roots, particularly highlighting the differences between Ph-6 and Ph-10. The results provide a foundation for elucidating the mechanism of LP tolerance, thus potentially contributing to developing high P-use efficiency in Moso bamboo species.

GENDER-SPECIFIC LIFE SCENARIOS IN INDIVIDUALS WITH DIFFERENT LEVELS OF TOLERANCE TO UNCERTAINTY

Purpose. Currently, the scenario line of research in personality psychology seems to be particularly promising, since this line of research allows us to identify the specific features of the transformation of the conscious construction of human life paths under changing conditions of uncertainty. The aim of the study is to determine the gender specificity of life scenarios in individuals with different levels of tolerance to uncertainty.
 Materials and Methods. The sampling consisted of 200 people with different levels of tolerance towards uncertainty. The methods of the study included the semantic differential Lifestyle by V.P. Serkin and the New Questionnaire of Tolerance Towards Uncertainty by T.V. Kornilova. The data obtained were processed by means of factor analysis with the help of the program IBM SPSS Statistics 23.
 Results. The results showed that the life scenarios of people with different levels of tolerance to uncertainty are gender-specific: men with a high tolerance to uncertainty show predominant characteristics of the scenario associated with an active life position and the search for novelty, whereas women show a scenario aimed at activity in the social sphere (the desire to actively participate in the fate of others, to help and support). Men with a low tolerance towards uncertainty show such scenario patterns as striving for security, stability and predictability of events, while women – in addition to striving for a convenient, comfortable life – show tactical patterns: emotional restraint and calculation.
 Field of results application. The results of the study can be used in socio-psychological training and counselling to identify and correct an individual’s life scenario.

Goat mammary gland metabolism: An integrated Omics analysis to unravel seasonal weight loss tolerance

Seasonal weight loss (SWL), is a major limitation to animal production. In the Canary Islands, there are two dairy goat breeds with different levels of tolerance to SWL: Majorera (tolerant) and Palmera (susceptible). Our team has studied the response of these breeds to SWL using different Omics tools. The objective of this study was to integrate such results in a data driven approach and using dedicated tools, namely the DIABLO method. The outputs of our analysis mainly separate unrestricted from restricted goats. Metabolites behave as “hub” molecules, grouping interactions with several genes and proteins. Unrestricted goats upregulated protein synthesis, along with arginine catabolism and adipogenesis pathways, which are related with higher anabolic rates and a larger proportion of secretory tissue, in agreement with their higher milk production. Contrarily, restricted goats seemingly increased the synthesis of acetyl-CoA through serine and acetate conversion into pyruvate. This may have occurred to increase fatty acid synthesis and/or to use them as an energy source in detriment to glucose, which was more available in the diet of unrestricted goats. Lastly, restricted Palmera upregulated the expression of PEBP4 and GPD1 genes compared to all other groups, which might support their use as putative biomarkers for SWL susceptibility. SignificanceSeasonal weight loss (SWL) is a major issue influencing animal production in the tropics and Mediterranean. By studying its impact on the mammary gland of tolerant and susceptible dairy goat breeds, using Omics, we aim at surveying the tissue for possible biomarkers that reflect these traits. In this study, data integration of three Omics (transcriptomics, proteomics and metabolomics) was performed using bioinformatic tools, to relate putative biomarkers and evaluate all three levels of information; in a novel approach. This information can enhance selection programs, lowering the impact of SWL on food production systems.

Inter-row cropping and rootstock genotype selection in a UK cider orchard to combat apple replant disease

Apple rootstock genotypes confer different levels of tolerance to apple replant disease (ARD) and vigour to a newly replanted apple tree. A hybrid management system of rotating the rootstock genotype planted between successive generations and inter-row planting in the alleyways of orchards may minimise the severity of ARD symptoms. High-throughput sequencing of the fungal ITS and bacterial 16S rDNA regions was used to investigate the diversity, and differential taxa present in soils displaying symptoms of ARD. Candidate pathogens and beneficial microorganisms were correlated with the above-ground establishment of each rootstock genotype in a UK cider orchard. Our results suggest that the same rootstock or rootstock with closely related parentage to the previous rootstock had more severe ARD symptoms. Planting in the alleyway appeared an effective strategy to minimise the severity of symptoms irrespective of rootstock genotype. The planting location effect had a higher contribution to the variation in the rhizosphere microbiome than that of the rootstock genotype. No predicted causal agents for ARD could be identified to a taxonomic level to predict their function but two species associated with mycorrhizae, Pteridiospora spinosispora and Paraglomus laccatum were identified as inversely correlated with ARD severity and could be candidate beneficial species for apple, warranting further investigation and research. Our findings suggest that planting in the alleyways and planting rootstocks genetically dissimilar to the previously planted rootstock can be beneficial for tree establishment. We have also identified species inversely associated with ARD severity, making candidates for future research to test the antagonistic effect of the species against ARD pathogens in apple roots.

Rhizobacteria isolated from xerophyte Haloxylon ammodendron manipulate root system architecture and enhance drought and salt tolerance in Arabidopsis thaliana.

The objective of this study was to identify bacteria from the rhizosphere of the black saxaul (Haloxylon ammodendron) and test the possibility of using the bacteria for enhancement of drought and/or salt tolerance in the model plant, Arabidopsis thaliana. We collected rhizosphere and bulk soil samples from a natural habitat of H. ammodendron in Iran and identified 58 morphotypes of bacteria that were enriched in the rhizosphere. From this collection, we focused our further experiments on eight isolates. Microbiological analyses showed that these isolates have different levels of tolerance to heat, salt, and drought stresses, and showed different capabilities of auxin production and phosphorous solubilization. We first tested the effects of these bacteria on the salt tolerance of Arabidopsis on agar plate assays. The bacteria substantially influenced the root system architecture, but they were not effective in increasing salt tolerance significantly. Pot assays were then conducted to evaluate the effects of the bacteria on salt or drought tolerance of Arabidopsis on peat moss. Results showed that three of these bacteria (Pseudomonas spp. and Peribacillus sp.) effectively enhanced drought tolerance in Arabidopsis, so that while none of the mock-inoculated plants survived after 19days of water withholding, the survival rate was 50-100% for the plants that were inoculated with these bacteria. The positive effects of the rhizobacteria on a phylogenetically-distant plant species imply that the desert rhizobacteria may be used to enhance abiotic stress in crops.

Effect of salinity on germination capacity of laurel (Laurus nobilis L.)

In Tunisia, more precisely in semi-arid and arid areas, drought accentuated by the superficial evaporation of water leads to a gradual increase in salinity, which is a limiting factor in crop production. In these highly salty ecosystems, some plants grow naturally; however, various species show different levels of tolerance to salinity during their development. The germination of the seeds is the most sensitive stage to this abiotic stress. The effect of this severe stress is little known among Laurel (Laurus nobilis L.), which is a native species of natural vegetation of the Mediterranean region, well known for its medicinal, aromatic, forestry, ornamental and culinary properties, and rare in its natural habitat, often subject to overexploitation or threatened with risk of extinction in Tunisia. The objective of this work is to study the effects of different concentrations of NaCl of irrigation water on germination behavior of laurus nobilis L. The experiment was carried out in Tunis, the experimental design was entirely randomized with four treatments: 0, 50, 100, and 150 mM NaCl and five replications of 80 seeds, for each treatments. Salt stress caused a negative effect on the germination of laurel seeds especially for the highest concentrations of salt (150 mM NaCl).

Project Risks Influence on Water Supply and Sanitation Sector Financing Opportunities

Private financing mobilized in the water supply and sanitation sector has not been sufficient to cover the sector’s needs. Several barriers hinder private financing leveraging, including the risk perception of water supply and sanitation projects. This study analyzed 185 water supply and sanitation projects financed by the World Bank between 2015 and 2021 to understand how perceived project risks can influence the financing of these sectors. This study demonstrates the parallels between different types of project risks, their ratings, and the different lending instruments and amounts committed by the bank. The most prevalent risks in the analyzed WSS projects were identified, namely, fiduciary, institutional capacity for implementation and sustainability, environmental and social, and political and governance. The World Bank appears to have different levels of tolerance for the different types of risks, and this tolerance seems to vary between regions and with time. Risks seem to have different weights when financiers decide which WSS projects to finance. Global and regional risk profiles of the 185 WSS projects financed by the World Bank were developed, which can help borrowers identify risks that they can mitigate to potentially improve their ability to attract private finance for WSS projects.

Haplotype-Based Genome-Wide Association Analysis Using Exome Capture Assay and Digital Phenotyping Identifies Genetic Loci Underlying Salt Tolerance Mechanisms in Wheat.

Soil salinity can impose substantial stress on plant growth and cause significant yield losses. Crop varieties tolerant to salinity stress are needed to sustain yields in saline soils. This requires effective genotyping and phenotyping of germplasm pools to identify novel genes and QTL conferring salt tolerance that can be utilised in crop breeding schemes. We investigated a globally diverse collection of 580 wheat accessions for their growth response to salinity using automated digital phenotyping performed under controlled environmental conditions. The results show that digitally collected plant traits, including digital shoot growth rate and digital senescence rate, can be used as proxy traits for selecting salinity-tolerant accessions. A haplotype-based genome-wide association study was conducted using 58,502 linkage disequilibrium-based haplotype blocks derived from 883,300 genome-wide SNPs and identified 95 QTL for salinity tolerance component traits, of which 54 were novel and 41 overlapped with previously reported QTL. Gene ontology analysis identified a suite of candidate genes for salinity tolerance, some of which are already known to play a role in stress tolerance in other plant species. This study identified wheat accessions that utilise different tolerance mechanisms and which can be used in future studies to investigate the genetic and genic basis of salinity tolerance. Our results suggest salinity tolerance has not arisen from or been bred into accessions from specific regions or groups. Rather, they suggest salinity tolerance is widespread, with small-effect genetic variants contributing to different levels of tolerance in diverse, locally adapted germplasm.

Study on diversity, nitrogen-fixing capacity, and heavy metal tolerance of culturable Pongamia pinnata rhizobia in the vanadium-titanium magnetite tailings.

The diversity, nitrogen-fixing capacity and heavy metal tolerance of culturable rhizobia in symbiotic relationship with Pongamia pinnata surviving in vanadium (V) - titanium (Ti) magnetite (VTM) tailings is still unknown, and the rhizobia isolates from the extreme barren VTM tailings contaminated with a variety of metals would provide available rhizobia resources for bioremediation. P. pinnata plants were cultivated in pots containing the VTM tailings until root nodules formed, and then culturable rhizobia were isolated from root nodules. The diversity, nitrogen-fixing capacity and heavy metal tolerance of rhizobia were performed. Among 57 rhizobia isolated from these nodules, only twenty strains showed different levels of tolerance to copper (Cu), nickel (Ni), manganese (Mn) and zinc (Zn), especially strains PP1 and PP76 showing high tolerance against these four heavy metals. Based on the phylogenetic analysis of 16S rRNA and four house-keeping genes (atpD, recA, rpoB, glnII), twelve isolates were identified as Bradyrhizobium pachyrhizi, four as Ochrobactrum anthropic, three as Rhizobium selenitireducens and one as Rhizobium pisi. Some rhizobia isolates showed a high nitrogen-fixing capacity and promoted P. pinnata growth by increasing nitrogen content by 10%-145% in aboveground plant part and 13%-79% in the root. R. pachyrhizi PP1 showed the strongest capacity of nitrogen fixation, plant growth promotion and resistance to heavy metals, which provided effective rhizobia strains for bioremediation of VTM tailings or other contaminated soils. This study demonstrated that there are at least three genera of culturable rhizobia in symbiosis with P. pinnata in VTM tailings. Abundant culturable rhizobia with the capacity of nitrogen fixation, plant growth promotion and resistance to heavy metals survived in VTM tailings, indicating more valuable functional microbes could be isolated from extreme soil environments such as VTM tailings.

UNCERTAINTY TOLERANCE
 AND PROFESSIONAL BURNOUT AMONG TEACHERS

The article analyzes the relationship between tolerance for uncertainty and professional burnout among teachers.
 A study was made of the level of professional burnout and the level of tolerance for uncertainty among teachers of secondary
 education institutions. Most of the subjects are characterized by an average degree of reduction of professional
 achievements, an average degree of depersonalization, a high and extremely high degree of professional burnout.
 Teachers have an average level of tolerance for uncertainty. The study found that there is a relationship between the level
 of depersonalization and interpersonal intolerance among teachers. When comparing groups with different levels of tolerance
 for uncertainty, it was revealed that there are differences in the groups in terms of subfactors of professional
 burnout. Conclusions are drawn about the influence of uncertainty tolerance on professional burnout, which is significant
 in making recommendations for the prevention of professional burnout of teachers.

Seasonal weight loss effect in the hepatic fatty acid composition in Australian Merino, Damara and Dorper sheep

Seasonal weight loss (SWL) is one of the major limitations in small ruminant production in drought-prone regions. The study of breeds with higher tolerance to the effects of SWL is particularly important to define breed selection strategies. In this work we evaluated the effect of SWL in the hepatic fatty acids profile in three ovine breeds with different levels of tolerance: the Merino (susceptible to SWL), the Dorper (intermediate tolerant to SWL), and Damara (tolerant to SWL). Animals from each breed were divided into two experimental groups: a growth group and a restricted fed group. The more representative fatty acids in the three breeds were stearic acid, oleic acid and palmitic acid. Univariate analysis revealed interaction between breed and feed-restriction in eighteen of the total fatty acids identified. Multivariate analysis showed separation between growth and restricted animals in each of the three breeds. Variations observed in the three breeds are in general related with fatty acid mobilization from the adipose tissue. Dorper and Damara breed showed exclusive variations, related with muscular tissue maintenance and hepatic adaptations respectively. Generally, Damara and Dorper breeds performed better under nutritional restriction, in accordance with results previously obtained following other approaches.

Physiological and Structural Responses of Olive Leaves Related to Tolerance/Susceptibility to Verticillium dahliae.

Verticillium wilt of olive (VWO), caused by the soil borne fungus Verticillium dahliae, is one of the most relevant diseases affecting this crop worldwide. One of the best VWO management strategies is the use of tolerant cultivars. Scarce information is available about physiological and structural responses in the leaves of olive cultivars displaying different levels of tolerance to VWO. To identify links between this phenotype and variations in functional characteristics of the leaves, this study examined the structural and physiological traits and the correlations among them in different olive varieties. This evaluation was conducted in the presence/absence of V. dahliae. On the one hand, no leaf trait but the area was related to VWO tolerance in the absence of the pathogen. On the other hand, after inoculation, susceptible cultivars showed lower leaf area and higher leaf mass per area and dry matter content. Furthermore, at the physiological level, these plants showed severe symptoms resembling water stress. Analyzing the relationships among physiological and structural traits revealed differences between tolerant and susceptible cultivars both in the absence and in the presence of V. dahliae. These results showed that olive leaves of VWO-tolerant and VWO-susceptible cultivars adopt different strategies to cope with the pathogen.

Waxy is an important factor for grain fissure resistance and head rice yield as revealed by a genome-wide association study.

Head rice yield (HRY) is an essential quality trait, and is sensitive to environmental stresses during the grain-filling, harvest, and postharvest stages. It is therefore important for rice production and global food security to select for superior HRY traits; however, the molecular basis of this trait remains unknown. Using diverse rice germplasm material, we performed a genome-wide association study of grain fissure resistance (GFR), the phenotype most associated with HRY, and found that the granule-bound starch synthase I gene Waxy is an important gene controlling GFR. Analysis of near-isogenic lines demonstrated that genetic variations in Waxy conferred different levels of tolerance to fissuring in grains. The null allele wx resulted in the highest GFR, while alleles that increased amylose synthesis reduced GFR. Increases in amylose content led to increases in the ratio of the widths of the amorphous layer to the semi-crystalline layer of the starch granules, and also to increased occurrence of chalkiness. The layer structure determined GFR by affecting the degree of swelling of granules in response to moisture, and chalkiness acted as an accelerator of moisture infiltration to rapidly increase the number of swelling granules. Our study reveals the molecular basis of GFR and HRY, thus opening the door for further understanding of the molecular networks of GFR and HRY.