Socioeconomic Differences In Outcomes Research Articles

Is beauty-based inequality gendered? A systematic review of gender differences in socioeconomic outcomes of physical attractiveness in labor markets

ABSTRACT During the past decade, academic interest in physical attractiveness-based social inequalities has spread significantly beyond the United States to Europe. In previous research, however, there has been no consensus on whether the socioeconomic outcomes of physical attractiveness are gendered. Thus, we conducted a systematic review to determine to what extent and how the socioeconomic outcomes of physical appearance in labor markets are gendered. A total of 58 articles were reviewed after searching through five databases and identifying relevant articles. The results show that, in general, more attractive individuals are socioeconomically favored, which is true for both men and women. The number of studies that claim that attractiveness is more beneficial for women is almost equal to the number of studies that claim it is more beneficial for men. Moreover, while the socioeconomic outcomes for men are somewhat consistent, the outcomes for women appear to be more inconsistent; only women appear to be both rewarded and penalized for being attractive. Therefore, we conclude that contextual factors play a greater role in attractiveness-related outcomes, especially for women, than previously assumed.

Stereotype Threat Theory in Organizational Research: Constructive Analysis and Future Research Agenda

Stereotype threat theory (STT), which seeks to understand intergroup differences in socioeconomic outcomes, has attracted considerable attention since its inception. With the goal of advancing conversation about the usefulness of STT in organizational settings, and to extend discussions on theory assessment, we evaluate STT as a “good” theory for organizational research using a three-pronged (i.e., 3E) theory assessment framework: experience, explain, and establish. Our critical analysis reveals areas where STT has made progress and where gaps remain to be addressed. The systematic approach we pursue allows for a rigorous articulation of the 3E framework for future theory assessment work as well as helps to suggest ways for improving upon and extending STT research in new directions.

Can school-based, health behavioural interventions tackle health inequities in childhood?

Abstract Background To improve the health situation of children in primary school, many school-based interventions that are aimed at changing health behaviours, are being set up. Prior to knowing the (long-term) effectiveness of such intervention, we set out to examine whether there is room for such interventions to also tackle the health gap between children from high and low socioeconomic backgrounds. Methods Data from the Dutch quasi-experimental Health Primary School of the Future were used. All children from eight primary schools were included in the period 2015-2019. In the first cross-sectional phase, we studied whether there were socioeconomic differences in various health outcomes (e.g. body mass index) and whether these were smaller in children in the oldest groups (highest classes). In a two-year longitudinal approach, it was studied how socioeconomic differences in health outcomes developed in two years time and whether health behaviours could “explain” any socioeconomic differences in the outcomes. Linear and logistic regression analyses were used, including multilevel variants thereof, as well as mediation analyses. Results Both the cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses indicated substantial and consistent socioeconomic differences in various health outcomes. The socioeconomic differences in health appeared stronger in the oldest children (highest classes). Due to only small socioeconomic differences in health behaviours, such behaviours did not mediate the socioeconomic differences in the children's health outcomes. Conclusions The findings indicate substantial socioeconomic differences in health in primary school. That being longer at school did not attenuate the socioeconomic differences in health and that health behaviours did not mediate the socioeconomic differences in health suggests that there might not be much room for school-based, health behaviour interventions to easily tackle socioeconomic differences in health in childhood. Key messages We found substantial socioeconomic differences in child health in the Netherlands. But we found only little evidence that primary school-based, health behavioural interventions will easily tackle socioeconomic differences in child health.

Socioeconomic differences in outcomes after hospital admission for atrial fibrillation or flutter

To examine socioeconomic differences in care and outcomes in a 1-year period beginning 30 days after hospital discharge for first-time atrial fibrillation or flutter (AF) hospitalization. This nationwide register-based follow-up cohort study investigated AF 30-day discharge survivors in Denmark during 2005-2014 and examined associations between patient's socioeconomic status (SES) and selected outcomes during a 1-year follow-up period beginning 30 days post-discharge after first-time hospitalization for AF. Patient SES was defined in four groups (lowest, second lowest, second highest, and highest) according to each patient's equivalized income. SES of the included 150544 patients was: 27.7% lowest (n = 41648), 28.1% second lowest (n = 42321), 23.7% second highest (n = 35656), and 20.5% highest (n = 30919). Patients of lowest SES were older and more often women. Within 1-year follow-up, patients of lowest SES were less often rehospitalized or seen in outpatient clinics due to AF, or treated with cardioversion or ablation and were slightly more often diagnosed with stroke and heart failure (HF) and significantly more likely to die (16.1% vs. 14.9%, 11.3% and 8.1%). Hazard ratios for all-cause mortality were 0.64 (95% confidence interval 0.61-0.68) for highest vs. lowest SES, adjusted for CHA2DS2-VASc score, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, rate- and rhythm-controlling drugs, and cohabitation status. In 30-day survivors of first-time hospitalization due to AF, lowest SES is associated with increased 1-year all-cause and cardiovascular mortality and fewer cardioversions, ablations, readmissions, and outpatient contacts due to AF. Our findings indicate a need for socially differentiated rehabilitation following hospital discharge for first-time AF.

Book Review Article: “Our Task is to Overcome Racism in a World in which Racial Differences Exist.”

According to philosopher Michael O. Hardimon, human races do exist. He distinguishes four “race” concepts: the racialist one, which implies essentialism, hierarchy, and the idea of differences in important traits such as intelligence; the minimalist one, which merely refers to races as populations characterized by common physical features, biological relatedness, and common origin; the populationist one, which is roughly the minimalist one plus the data from population genetics; and the concept of “socialrace”, that is, a group which is considered to be a racialist race. Michael O. Hardimon thinks that only the first concept should be rejected. As for the possibility of mental differences between the races, he dismisses it and accuses those who consider these differences to exist of being “scientific racists” (p. 26). The author demonstrates in a convincing manner that the minimalist and the populationist concepts are compatible with current data from population genetics, and he demonstrates that a biological concept of race is perfectly consistent with an antiracist stance. In his chapter on “socialrace”, he endorses the idea of “institutional racism”, which implies that all the differences in socio-economic outcomes between the races are the result of a hidden oppressive institution. One may agree with the author on the necessity to “overcome racism in a world in which racial differences exist”, without necessarily agreeing with him on what “racial differences” really are, and without necessarily endorsing his idea of “institutional racism”, which is unlikely to foster mutual understanding and reduce the risk of racial conflicts.

Who Are “Chinese” Speakers in the United States?: Examining Differences in Socioeconomic Outcomes and Language Identities

Calls to disaggregate data on Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders (AAPIs) overlook heterogeneity in experiences and outcomes within AAPI subgroups. Using national data from the American Community Survey, this study examines socioeconomic differences among Chinese Americans in terms of language identity. The results indicate the most frequently identified home languages among Chinese speakers are Formosan, Mandarin, Cantonese, and simply “Chinese.” The groups differ in representation depending on state residency and citizenship, while Cantonese speakers have the lowest levels of English proficiency and educational attainment. The strongest predictor of each language group is birthplace. The study has implications for serving disadvantaged and overlooked Chinese American subpopulations in the United States.

Benchmarking Cycling and Walking in Six New Zealand Cities: Pilot Study 2015

Benchmarking cities to compare active transport is established internationally, with varying approaches used. It can be a useful tool for planners, policy makers, advocates and researchers to determine how well cities are doing at promoting active transport, making it safe for people and reaping the environmental, health and economic rewards of this approach. New Zealand is a car-dominated society with high per-capita carbon emissions. While there has been a recent, modest, policy push to develop urban cycling, overall the policy environment remains unsupportive of active travel. Despite this, there are well-known differences between New Zealand cities in active transport patterns, although this has never been looked at systematically. We undertook a project to benchmark cycling and walking in the six largest New Zealand cities (Auckland, Tauranga, Hamilton, Wellington, Christchurch and Dunedin). This work used (with permission) the same format as the successful Alliance for Biking and Walking biennial Benchmarking report in the United States, but was modified to the New Zealand context. Using existing data sources and new survey data we reported on an extensive array of inputs (for example policies, extent of infrastructure, level of investment, programmes and personnel) and outcomes (including levels of cycling and walking, health outcomes such as physical activity, obesity, and safety for cyclists and pedestrians). Where possible we also reported gender, ethnic and socio-economic differences in outcomes. In this presentation we discuss some of the key findings- the full report is published here: http://sustainablecities.org.nz/resilient-urban-futures/benchmarking/ . We will also discuss some of the lessons learned from this first attempt at Benchmarking. These include issues with engaging local government, dealing with discrepancies in geographic boundaries, limitations of routinely collected datasets, a lack of shared understanding of infrastructure, the funding and sustainability of benchmarking, and who should undertake benchmarking. Benchmarking cities can potentially be a powerful tool to encourage active transport, this preliminary experience in New Zealand contains useful lessons for other researchers or practitioners interested in this approach.

Bringing culture back in: the class origins and ethnoracial destinations of culture and achievement

ABSTRACTNotably absent from assimilation scholarship are analyses that seriously engage, rather than dismiss, cultural explanations for differences in group outcomes. That dismissal has left the assimilation scholars ill-equipped to thoroughly respond to popular and quasi-academic explanations that rely on an all-encompassing view of culture to explain immigrant group differences in socioeconomic outcomes. Jennifer Lee and Min Zhou’s The Asian American Achievement Paradox embraces the cultural explanation, but traces the root of an ethnoracial culture to its class origins. In so doing, Lee and Zhou force scholars to contend seriously with ‘culture’ as part of a larger explanation for group outcomes.

Are there socioeconomic differences in outcomes of coronary revascularizations—a register-based cohort study

Earlier studies have reported socioeconomic differences in coronary heart disease incidence and mortality and in coronary treatment, but less is known about outcomes of care. We examined trends in income group differences in outcomes of coronary revascularizations among Finnish residents in 1998-2010. First revascularizations for 45-84-year-old Finns were extracted from the Hospital Discharge Register in 1998-2009 and followed until 31 December 2010. Income was individually linked to them and adjusted for family size. We examined the risk of major adverse cardiac events (MACEs), coronary mortality and re-revascularization. We calculated age-standardized rates with direct method and Cox regression models. Altogether 69 076 men and 27 498 women underwent revascularization during the study period. Among men [women] in the 1998 cohort, 41% [35%] suffered MACE during 29 days after the operation and 30% [28%] in the 2009 cohort. Myocardial infarction mortality within 1 year was 2% among both genders in both cohorts. Among men [women] 9% [14%] underwent revascularization within 1 year after the operation in 1998 and 12% [12%] in 2009. Controlling for age, co-morbidities, year, previous infarction and disease severity, an inverse income gradient was found in MACE incidence within 29 days and in coronary mortality. The excess MACE risk was 1.39 and excess mortality risk over 1.70 among both genders in the lowest income quintile. All income group differences remained stable from 1998 to 2010. In health care, more attention should be paid to prevention of adverse outcomes among persons with low socioeconomic position undergoing revascularization.

Early years health and developmental inequalities in Scotland: evidence from the growing up in Scotland study

Aims This abstract addresses the following questions: ▶What is the extent and character of health and developmental inequalities in Scotland in the early years? ▶What factros are associated with children from disadvantaged backgrounds avoiding negative outcomes? Methods The abstract uses data from the first five waves of the Growing Up in Scotland (GUS) longitudinal study. GUS started in 2005 with 5,000 babies born in Scotland, selected at random from Child Benefit records. Annual data collection began at age 10 months but information about the pregnancy was also collected. Health/developmental inequalities were defined as socio-economic differences in outcomes and risk factors for poor outcomes. The analysis spans the time from pre-conception to age 46 months Results Social gradients exist for many health and developmental outcomes, for example (table 1): Similar, but generally steeper, gradients exist for a range of risk factors (table 2): Regression analysis showed that children from socio-economically deprived backgrounds were less likely to have negative outcomes if their mother had not experienced long-term health problems, if they lived in a household with at least one adult in full-time work, or had an enriching home learning environment. Girls and children of mothers aged over 25 were also less likely to have negative outcomes. Conclusions The analysis underlines the powerful potential for early identification of problems and intervention, particularly in cognitive and behavioural development, coupled with action to combat poverty and exclusion. Scotland9s new programme of 24-30 month reviews could potentially contribute to improving outcomes in this area.

Racial Prejudice and Spending on Drug Rehabilitation: The Role of Attitudes Toward Blacks and Latinos

We enhance understanding of the prejudice-induced "color coding" phenomenon among whites by determining whether racial and ethnic prejudices are associated with a previously unexplored policy outcome, spending on drug rehabilitation. We examine attitudes toward both blacks and Latinos; the latter is a group largely ignored in previous research. We assess the impact of several types of racial/ethnic views, including those that manifest modern/indirect prejudice (e.g., stereotypes about violence, individualistic causal attributions) and those that reflect social-distance-based traditional prejudice (opposition to residential proximity and to interracial marriage). These relationships are examined using data from the General Social Survey. Bivariate results support the linkage between both traditional and modern prejudice and rehabilitation spending. Logistic regression analyses also indicate that support for rehabilitation is racialized: Attributing race differences in socioeconomic outcomes to "structural" factors, namely discrimination and lack of chance for education, is associated with believing rehabilitation spending is inadequate, controlling for the effects of other racial/ethnic attitudes and background factors. The relationship between this measure of modern prejudice and the outcome is consistent with color coding. The implications of the findings are discussed, and suggestions for future research that further examine the scope of color coding are offered.

Social capital reduces socio-economic differences in child health: evidence from the Canadian Health Behaviour in School-Aged Children study.

To examine whether adolescents' exposure to neighbourhood social capital, which is defined as levels of trust, cohesion and cooperation, reduces socio-economic differences in physical and psychological health outcomes. Survey data were collected from the 9717 Canadian youths in grades 6 to 10 participating in the 2006 Health Behaviour of School-aged Children study. Data analyses tested interaction effects of socio-economic status (SES) and social capital on five outcomes: psychological symptoms, somatic symptoms, injuries, fighting and life satisfaction. SES effects on the five health outcomes varied depending on the level of exposure to neighbourhood social capital. High levels of social capital reduced or eliminated SES differences in health. However, in areas of high social capital, more affluent children reported slightly more somatic symptoms, injuries and fighting than less affluent children. Reduction of health inequalities in children and youth is a priority for public policy. Our results suggest that building social capital in neighbourhoods is one avenue for reducing socio-economic disparities in children's physical and psychological health. However, the findings suggest that there might be a downside to social capital in that it appears to reverse socio-economic differences in some outcomes.

Gender differences in the predictors and socio-economic outcomes of young parenthood in Great Britain

A large body of research has identified several predisposing characteristics associated with young parenthood, as well as a host of undesirable outcomes resulting from an early first birth. Using data from a large cohort of British births, we confirm that men and women who enter parenthood before 20 are more likely to come from disadvantaged backgrounds, have childhood behavioural problems, come from large families, and themselves been born to young mothers. We use the conventional method of examining the socio-economic outcomes associated with an early birth and find, like many others, that compared to individuals who delayed their first birth, individuals who entered parenthood before age 20 fared less well on several outcomes later in life. We then use an instrumental variable technique to account for selection into young parenthood and find that the characteristics that predict young parenthood already points such people towards poorer socio-economic outcomes in later life, such that the failure to delay a first birth can largely be regarded as inconsequential. We also note that after selection into young parenthood has been accounted for, no gender differences in socio-economic outcomes are observed.

Wealth Accumulation of Black and White Men: The Case of Housing Equity

This paper looks at racial differences in how male workers accumulate housing equity. Findings from a national sample suggest major differences favoring whites in the payoff to such characteristics as earnings, age, marital status, and area of current residence. Blacks and whites also differ in the form of the relationship between years of schooling and housing equity. When the analysis is confined to homeowners only, many of these racial differences remain. The findings provide evidence concerning racial inequity in the United States housing markets and thus allow inferences concerning discrimination in housing. The findings also dramatize racial differences in a key form of wealth accumulation as a complement to other reports of racial differences in socio-economic outcomes.