Dietary Patterns Of Pregnant Women Research Articles

The differential effect of maternal dietary patterns on quantiles of Birthweight

BackgroundMaternal dietary habits during pregnancy are considered essential for development and growth of the fetus as well as maternal health. It has an effect on the birthweight of infants. However, little is known about the effect of dietary patterns on birthweight in urban South Africa. This study aimed to investigate differential effect of dietary patterns of pregnant women on quantiles of birthweight.MethodsData for the study were obtained from a Mother and Child in the Environment birth cohort study in Durban South Africa. Quantile regression was used to investigate the effect of maternal dietary patterns on quantiles of birthweight. Data collection was conducted during the period of 2013 to 2017 in Durban South Africa. Using factor analysis, eight dietary groups were identified from 687 pregnant women in the cohort. Quantile regression analysis was employed to identify the differential effects of the seven dietary groups and demographic factors on the birthweight.ResultsThe quantile regression estimates at the 50th quantile and the ordinary regression estimates painted the same picture about the conditional mean effect of covariates on the birthweight. But unlike the quantile regression the ordinary regression fails to give insights about the covariates effect disparities at the low and/or upper birthweight quantiles. All the dietary groups show a significant differential effect at different birthweight quantiles. For instance, increased frequency of protein rich foods intake was associated with reduction in birthweight at lower and upper quantiles; increased frequency of junk foods intake has a slight increase in birthweight at the lower quantiles but significantly higher increase at the 95th quantile (p < 0.001); increase in consuming vegetable rich foods, reduced birthweight at 95th quantile (p < 0.001). The results further showed that employment (p = 0.006) and family size (p = 0.002) had differential effects across different birthweight quantiles.ConclusionsBoth maternal undernutrition and overnutrition of protein rich foods, junk foods, snack and energy foods and vegetable rich foods have shown a substantial varying effects on those infants with birthweights in the lower and upper birthweight quantiles.

Modeling Differential Effects of Maternal Dietary Patterns across Severity Levels of Preterm Birth Using a Partial Proportional Odds Model

Preterm birth is a common cause of death worldwide of children under the age of five years. This condition is linked with short and long term neonatal morbidity and mortality. Maternal nutrition during pregnancy has a profound effect on fetal growth and development and subsequently also on the incidence of preterm birth. The aim of this study was to assess the differential effect of dietary patterns of pregnant women across ordered levels of preterm birth. Dietary assessments were performed using a food frequency questionnaire, presented to 687 pregnant women, in the “Mother and Child in the Environment” birth cohort during the period of 2013 to 2017. Each pregnancy resulted in a live birth. Eight dietary patterns were extracted, using exploratory factor analysis. The partial proportional odds model was employed to model severity levels of preterm birth. The partial proportional odds model has been recognized to be a flexible approach since it allows the effect of predictor variables to vary across categories of the ordinal response variable of interest. Women with increased consumption of vegetable-rich foods showed a reduced risk of very to moderately preterm birth incidence (AOR = 0.73, 95% CI = (0.531, 0.981), p = 0.036). Lower odds of very/moderately preterm birth compared to late preterm or term birth were observed for women following “nuts and rice foods” dietary pattern (AOR = 0.25, 95% CI = (0.099, 0.621), p = 0.003). High dietary consumption of starch foods dietary pattern (AOR = 2.09, 95% CI = (1.158, 3.769), p = 0.014) was associated with the most severe level of preterm birth outcome incidence, i.e. very/moderately preterm birth. The partial proportional odds modeling allowed the description of the effect of maternal dietary patterns across the different severity levels of preterm birth.

Nutritional assessment of pregnant and lactating women in an urban slum of Siddipet District, Telangana, India

Background: One of the vulnerable groups among the population is pregnant and lactating mothers. Among the women in pregnancy it effects the fetal growth and development. Aim of this study is to assess the dietary pattern of pregnant women and lactating mothers and factors related with adequacy of nutrient intake.Methods: Community based cross-sectional study. Study setting was urban slum dwellers of Siddipet. Study period from September 2019 to November 2019. Study population were pregnant and lactating women up to 6 months registered in Anganwadi centre. Sample size was 91 pregnant and 58 lactating women. Sampling methods was simple random sampling method. Data analysis used was SPSS Version 21.Results: Distribution of women according to intake of nutrients revealed that nearly 90% of the pregnant and 50% of the lactating women were not taking adequate calories and proteins respectively. Mean calorie intake in pregnant and lactating women was 1418±192 and 1600±218 respectively (recommended dietary allowance (RDA) for calories in pregnant and lactating women was 2580 kcal and 2830 kcal respectively). Mean protein intake in pregnant and lactating women was 47±9 and 51±8 respectively (RDA for protein in pregnant and lactating women was 78 gm and 74 gm respectively). Food taboos were prevalent in both pregnant (42%) and lactating women (55%).Conclusions: Interventions for promoting health education in women need to be strengthened, in order to achieve proper nutrition to women and mothers.

Erratum.

[This corrects the article doi: 10.11606/s1518-8787.2019053000909].

Dietary patterns of pregnant women, maternal excessive body weight and gestational diabetes.

ABSTRACTOBJECTIVE To investigate the relationship between the dietary patterns of pregnant women with maternal excessive body weight and gestational diabetes mellitus.METHODS A cross-sectional study conducted with a convenience sample of 785 adult pregnant women attended by the Unified Health System of Ribeirão Preto, state of São Paulo, between 2011 and 2012. Two 24-hour dietary recalls, corrected by the multiple source method, were employed . For the classification of the body mass index and the diagnosis of gestational diabetes mellitus, the criteria by Atalah and the World Health Organization were used, respectively. Dietary patterns were obtained by principal component analysis using the Varimax rotation method. The relationship between adherence to patterns, overweight and obesity was analyzed by multinomial logistic regression models and the relationship with gestational diabetes mellitus by adjusted unconditional logistic regression models.RESULTS We identified four dietary patterns: “traditional Brazilian”; “snacks”; “coffee” and “healthy”. Women with a higher adherence to the “Healthy” (OR = 0.52; 95%CI 0.33–0.83) and “Brazilian Traditional” patterns (OR = 0.61; 95%CI 0.38–0.96) presented a lower chance of obesity, when compared to women with lower adherence, regardless of confounding factors. After adjustment for maternal excessive body weight, there was no association between dietary patterns and gestational diabetes mellitus.CONCLUSIONS Among the pregnant women, greater adherence to “traditional Brazilian” and “healthy” patterns was inversely associated with obesity, but no relationship was identified with gestational diabetes mellitus after adjusting for excessive body weight. Prospective studies are recommended to investigate the relationship between dietary patterns, overweight and gestational diabetes mellitus, reducing the chance of reverse causality.

Fermented foods and preterm birth risk from a prospective large cohort study: the Japan Environment and Children\u2019s study

BackgroundThe dietary pattern of pregnant women is known to be associated with preterm birth (PTB). We investigated whether PTB was associated with intake of fermented food by using data from the Japan Environment and Children’s Study.MethodsFrom a data set of 103,099 pregnancies, 77,667 cases at low risk for PTB were analyzed. The primary outcome measurements were based on PTB. Fermented food (miso soup, yogurt, cheese, and fermented soybeans) consumption was assessed by using a semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire.ResultsIntake of miso soup, yogurt, and fermented soybeans before pregnancy significantly reduced the risk of early PTB (< 34 weeks). The adjusted odds ratio (OR) for early PTB in women who had miso soup 1–2 days/week, 3–4 days/week, or ≥ 5 days/week were 0.58, 0.69, and 0.62, respectively, compared with those who had miso soup < 1 day/week (95% confidence interval (CI) 0.40–0.85, 0.49–0.98, and 0.44–0.87). The adjusted OR for early PTB in women who ate yogurt ≥ 3 times/week was 0.62 (95% CI, 0.44–0.87) compared to those who ate yogurt < 1 time/week. The adjusted OR for early PTB in women who ate fermented soybeans ≥ 3 times/week was 0.60 (95% CI, 0.43–0.84) compared to those who ate < 1 time/week. However, the incidence of overall PTB and late PTB (34–36 weeks) was not associated with fermented food intake.ConclusionPTB low-risk women with a high consumption of miso soup, yogurt, and fermented soybeans before pregnancy have a reduced risk of early PTB.

Analysis Stress Level and Diet for Pregnant Women with The Incidence of Preeclampsia Ahmad Dahlan Hospital Kediri City

Background: Preeclampsia is one of complications in pregnancy happened because increased blood pressure accompanied by proteinuria and edema. This is caused by several factors.&#x0D; Purpose: The purpose of this study to find out the relationship between stress levels and dietary pattern of pregnant women with the incidence of preeklamsia in Hospital Muhammadiyah Ahmad Dahlan Kediri City.&#x0D; Method: The design of this study is correlation with cross sectional. The population studied were all pregnant women who visited the Muhammadiyah Ahmad Dahlan Hospital Kediri City. With gestational age &gt; 20 weeks with a sample of 85 respondents by purposive sampling. Data collection using questionnaires and observation sheets. Data analysis using test chi- square. &#x0D; Result: The results of the study show that pregnant women with moderate stress levels experience as much mild preeclampsia 15 respondent (17,6%) and pregnant women with poor diet who experince as much preeclampsia 13 respondent (15,3%). The result of data analysis show that the variabel stress level p-value (0,088) &gt; α (0.05) so there is no relationship between stress level and the incidence of preeclampsia whereas for dietary variables p-value (0.029) &lt; α (0.05) so that Ho rejected and H1 be accepted which means there is a relationship between eating habits and incidence of preeclampsia in the Ahmad Dahlan Hopsital, Kediri city.&#x0D; Conclusion: During pregnancy it is very important for pregnant women to manage stress well and regulate a healthy diet and routinely carry out Antenatal Care

Dietary pattern regulates fatty acid desaturase 1 gene expression in Indian pregnant women to spare overall long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids levels.

The aim of this study was to determine if the dietary pattern of pregnant women has any compensatory effect on the fatty acid desaturase (FADS) gene expression, thus enhancing the conversion of precursors to long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFA) to spare the overall LCPUFA levels. The dietary intake of plant-based precursor polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) influences circulating levels of LCPUFA. We hypothesized that low LCPUFA diets during pregnancy would compensate by higher expression of FADS genes to enhance the conversion of precursors to LCPUFA to spare the overall LCPUFA levels. Seventy-five pregnant women were enrolled during the last trimester of pregnancy based on the eligibility and exclusion criteria. Maternal LCPUFA in plasma, expression of FADS1 and FADS2 genes, FADS2 Indel genotype status and neonate birth weight were studied.In the vegetarian group (n = 25), plasma α-linolenic acid (ALA) but not linoleic acid (LA) was significantly lower (p < 0.05) than the non-vegetarian group (n = 50). No significant differences were found for arachidonic acid (AA) or docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) levels. FADS1 expression was significantly higher in the vegetarian group compared to the non-vegetarian group. There was no significant difference in the birth weight of the neonates between two groups. No significant correlation was observed between FADS2 Indel genotype and birth weight. Our small sample size study demonstrated an increase FADS1expression during pregnancy in vegetarian pregnant women that may have contributed to the maintenance of AA, eicosapentaenoic acid and DHA levels thereby ensuring that the overall LCPUFA levels of the neonate is not compromised.

Factors associated with gestational weight gain: a cross-sectional survey

BackgroundThe aim of this study was to describe the dietary patterns in pregnant women and determine the association between diet factors, pre-pregnancy body mass index, socio-demographic characteristics and gestational weight gain.MethodsThe analysis was conducted on a group of 458 women. Cut-off values of gestational weight gain adequacy were based on recommendations published by the US Institute of Medicine and were body mass index-specific. Logistic regression analysis was used to assess the risk of the occurrence of inadequate or excessive gestational weight gain. Dietary patterns were identified by factor analysis.ResultsThree dietary patterns characteristic of pregnant women in Poland were identified: ‘unhealthy’, ‘varied’ and ‘prudent’. The factor associated with increased risk of inadequate gestational weight gain was being underweight pre-pregnancy (OR = 2.61; p = 0.018). The factor associated with increased risk of excessive weight gain were being overweight or obese pre-pregnancy (OR = 7.00; p = 0.031) and quitting smoking (OR = 7.32; p = 0.019). The risk of excessive weight gain was decreased by being underweight pre-pregnancy (OR = 0.20; p = 0.041), being in the third or subsequent pregnancy compared to being in the first (OR = 0.37; p = 0.018), and having a high adherence to a prudent dietary pattern (OR = 0.47; p = 0.033).ConclusionsWomen who were overweight or obese pre-pregnancy and those who quit smoking at the beginning of pregnancy should be provided with dietary guidance to prevent excessive gestational weight gain.

Dietary patterns during pregnancy derived by reduced-rank regression and their association with gestational diabetes mellitus.

Evidence for the combined association of the quality of dietary carbohydrates and fats during pregnancy with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is scarce. The aim of this study was to identify dietary patterns during pregnancy, derived by the reduced-rank regression (RRR) model, associated with fiber density (g/1000 kcal) and the Thrombogenicity Index (TI) and to investigate their relationship with GDM. This was a cross-sectional study conducted with 785 pregnant women at gestational weeks 24 to 39. The diagnosis of GDM was based on the World Health Organization criteria. One 24-h dietary recall was obtained from all women and a second measurement from 73% of the sample, with the multiple source method used to estimate the usual diet. The patterns were determined by RRR, and the relationship with GDM was investigated using adjusted logistic regression models. The mean (standard deviation) age of the women was 28 y and 17.7% had GDM. Dietary pattern 1 (high rice, beans, and vegetables, with low full-fat dairy products, biscuits, and sweets) correlated positively with fiber density and negatively with TI and was inversely associated with GDM after multiple adjustments (odds ratio [OR], 0.58; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.36-0.95; P = 0.03). Dietary pattern 2 (high red meats, full-fat dairy products, chocolate powder and fruits, with low chicken and margarine) correlated positively with both TI and fiber density, with no association with GDM found (OR, 1.48; 95% CI, 0.91-2.40; P = 0.11). These data highlight the joint importance of the quality of dietary carbohydrates and fats in the dietary patterns of pregnant women in relation to the risk for developing GDM.

Role of food taboos in energy, macro and micronutrient intake of pregnant women in western Kenya

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to examine food taboos/habits and dietary patterns of pregnant women in Kenya.Design/methodology/approachIn all, 205 individual 24-h recall interviews were conducted face to face to collect information on pregnant women dietary intake. Women focus group discussions were conducted in seven villages in Kakamega County to determine which foods are avoided during pregnancy and the reasons for avoiding them.FindingsThe concept of “baby becoming big” was common advice to pregnant women to reduce intake of large amounts of starchy or high caloric foods. Restriction on the consumption of some parts of cow and chicken and consumption of eggs was widespread. Women with the highest education had significantly higher intake than women with lower education: energy (1,718 vs 1,436 kcal, p = 0.007), protein (45 vs 38 g, p = 0.03), vitamin C (59 vs 39 mg, p = 0.000), calcium (275 vs 222 mg, p = 0.04) and iron (8.5 vs 7.2 mg, p = 0.03). Multivariate binary logistic regression showed that participants with higher education were more likely to reach estimated average intake for energy (OR = 2.82, 95 per cent CI = 1.2-6.5) and vitamin C (OR = 4.1, 95 per cent CI = 1.5-11.0) than women with lower education level.Originality/valueThe observed link between reduced intake of nutrients and low education levels suggests that education is a possible intervention strategy. Incorporating nutrition education in school curriculum and improving knowledge on nutrition among women with low education may help overcome unhealthy food taboos in pregnant women.

Parental heights and maternal education as predictors of length/height of children at birth, age 3 and 19 years, independently on diet: the ELSPAC study.

Little is currently known about the relationship between the parental diet during pregnancy and the growth of the child from early childhood until early adulthood. This study was designed to examine whether the dietary patterns of the parents during a pregnancy and of the respective child at 3 years are associated with the length/height-for-age z-score of child at birth, 3 years of age and at 19 years of age. Dietary patterns of pregnant women and their partners, and offspring at 3 years that were enroled in the 1990-1991 period in the Czech part of the European Longitudinal Study of Pregnancy and Childhood. Multivariable linear regression models were used to estimate the relationship between the dietary patterns of parents (835 child-mother-father trios) during pregnancy and the length/height-for-age z-score of their offspring at birth, 3 years and 19 years. The maternal health-conscious food pattern was found to predict lower child height at 3 years, but not at birth nor at 19 years of age. An increase in the health-conscious pattern score of the maternal diet was associated with significantly lower height-for-age z-score at 3 years; however, the observed effect lost its significance after the adjustment for diet of the child at 3 years. After full adjustment, the only significant predictors of the height-for-age z-score of the child at 3 years were the heights of both parents and maternal education. More research into the association of maternal diet in pregnancy and height of child is necessary.

The Dietary Pattern of Pregnant Women Attending Ante Natal Clinic in a Tertiary Health Facility Centre in Nigeria

Nutritional status of pregnant women is very crucial to the wellbeing of the unborn child. Good dietary pattern among pregnant women reduces the rate of maternal and infant mortality which is still a big problem in developing countries. The study assessed food and dietary pattern, energy intake and awareness of the importance of taking adequate micronutrients during pregnancy. A total of 400 pregnant women attending a routine antenatal clinic of the Obafemi Awolowo University Teaching Hospital Ile Ife, Nigeria were recruited into the study by simple random sampling method on different clinic days. Structured interviewer administered questionnaires were used to elicit data on socio-demographic characteristics, anthropometric indices and 24 hour dietary recall which were used to assess the dietary pattern and nutritional status of the respondents. Seventy two per cent of the respondents were between the ages 25-34years, 91% were from monogamy family structure, 72 % had tertiary education and 83% were aware of micronutrients intake. About 98% of respondents consumed on a daily basis, food rich in carbohydrate, vegetable and fruits but 39% reported consuming protein rich diet such as fish and meat . Conclusively, the research confirmed that the dietary pattern of pregnant women showed they consumed more of carbohydrate diet compared to protein diet which is most important especially during pregnancy to improve their nutritional status and that of the unborn baby. More attention should be paid to nutritional education on the choice of food pregnant women eat, especially the less educated women and those with low income status.

Dietary patterns during pregnancy and the association with sociodemographic characteristics among women attending general practices in southern Brazil: the ECCAGe Study

The assessment of the relationship between food intake and sociodemographic factors is crucial for developing effective public health policies. The present study aimed to examine dietary patterns in pregnant women and the association between these patterns and sociodemographic characteristics. Pregnant women attending general practices in southern Brazil (n = 712) answered a questionnaire and a food-frequency questionnaire with 88 items. Three dietary patterns were identified using cluster analysis. The association between the dietary patterns and sociodemographic variables was analyzed using the chi-square test and adjusted standardized residuals (p &lt; 0,05). The restricted pattern was associated with lower maternal age, not living with a partner and being a non-working student. The varied pattern was associated with older maternal age, living with a partner, being employed and higher levels of education and income. The common-Brazilian dietary pattern included traditional Brazilian food items and was associated with lower levels of education and income, being unemployed and being a non-student.

Doenças respiratórias por influenza e causas associadas em idosos de um município do Nordeste brasileiro

Nationwide influenza vaccination campaigns are held annually in Brazil during the same time of the year. This study aimed to analyze deaths from respiratory illnesses and influenza-related causes among the elderly in the city of Aracaju, capital of Sergipe State, Brazil. Data were analyzed from the following databases: Information System on Influenza Epidemiological Surveillance (SIVEP_GRIPE), Hospital Information System (SIH), Mortality Information System (SIM), and Health Informatics Department (DATASUS), from 1998 to 2007, Sergipe State Central Laboratory (LACEN-SE), and rainfall data from the National Meteorology Institute (INMET). The year 2007 showed the highest mortality rate from influenza and related causes in elderly individuals. From 1998 to 2007, mortality rates from influenza-related respiratory illnesses and associated causes in Aracaju city were higher than in the States of Brazil, indicating the need to reformulate the influenza vaccination schedule in elderly residents of this city.

The association between the macronutrient content of maternal diet and the adequacy of micronutrients during pregnancy in the Women and Their Children’s Health (WATCH) study.

Nutrition during pregnancy can induce alterations in offspring phenotype. Maternal ratio of protein to non-protein (P:NP) energy has been linked to variations in offspring body composition and adult risk of metabolic disease. This study describes the dietary patterns of pregnant women by tertiles of the P:NP ratio and compares diet to Australian recommendations. Data are from 179 Australian women enrolled in the Women and Their Children’s Health Study. Diet was assessed using a validated 74-item food frequency questionnaire. Food group servings and nutrient intakes were compared to the Australian Guide to Healthy Eating and Australian Nutrient Reference Values. Higher maternal P:NP tertile was positively associated with calcium (P = 0.003), zinc (P = 0.001) and servings of dairy (P = 0.001) and meat (P = 0.001) food groups, and inversely associated with the energy dense, nutrient poor non-core (P = 0.003) food group. Micronutrient intakes were optimized with intermediate protein (18%E–20%E), intermediate fat (28%E–30%E) and intermediate carbohydrate (50%E–54%E) intakes, as indicated in tertile two. Results suggest a moderate protein intake may support pregnant women to consume the largest variety of nutrients across all food groups.

Maternal dietary patterns and associated nutrient intakes during each trimester of pregnancy.

To determine the main dietary patterns of pregnant women during each of the three trimesters of pregnancy and to examine associated nutrient intakes. Participants completed a 3 d food diary during each trimester of pregnancy. Thirty-six food groups were created and dietary patterns were derived using k-means cluster analysis. National Maternity Hospital, Dublin, Ireland. Two hundred and eighty-five healthy pregnant women aged between 20 and 41 years. Two dietary patterns were identified at each time point. They were labelled 'Unhealthy' (n =143, 150 and 155 at trimester 1, 2 and 3, respectively) and 'Health Conscious' (n 142, 135 and 130 at trimester 1, 2 and 3, respectively). Women in the 'Health Conscious' cluster were significantly older, had lower BMI and were higher educated than those in the 'Unhealthy' cluster. Of those in the 'Unhealthy' cluster in the first trimester (n =143), 103 (72.0 %) continued in this dietary pattern into trimester 2 and eighty-one (56.6 %) continued into trimester 3. Of those in the 'Health Conscious' cluster in trimester 1 (n =142), ninety-five (66.9 %) continued in this dietary pattern into trimester 2 and sixty-nine (48.6 %) continued into trimester 3. Cluster analysis produced two clearly defined dietary patterns at each stage of pregnancy. Knowledge of maternal dietary patterns is important for the development of pregnancy-specific dietary guidelines. Identifying women with an 'Unhealthy' dietary pattern in early pregnancy affords the opportunity for a dietary intervention which may positively impact both maternal and infant health.

P1-413 Factors associated with dietary patterns among pregnant Brazilian women

ObjectiveTo identify dietary patterns in pregnant women and investigate whether they are associated with sociodemographic factors, lifestyles, gestational diseases and pregestational body mass index.Design and MethodsLongitudinal study was carried out...

Nutritional adequacy of three dietary patterns defined by cluster analysis in 997 pregnant Japanese women: the Osaka Maternal and Child Health Study

To examine the adequacy and inadequacy of dietary patterns in pregnant women for which information is absolutely lacking. Diet was assessed by a validated, self-administered diet history questionnaire (DHQ). Dietary patterns were extracted from the intake of thirty-three food groups (g/4184 kJ (1000 kcal)), which were summarized from 147 foods assessed with the DHQ, by cluster analysis. Nutritional inadequacy for selected twenty nutrients in each dietary pattern was examined using the reference values given in the Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI) for Japanese as the temporal gold standard. Japan. Nine hundred and ninety-seven pregnant Japanese women aged 18-43 years. The three dietary patterns identified were labelled as 'meat and eggs' (n 423), 'wheat products' (n 371) and 'rice, fish and vegetables' (n 203). The 'rice, fish and vegetables' pattern characterized by high intake of rice, vegetables, potatoes, pulses, fruits, seaweed, fish and miso soup showed significantly the lowest prevalence of inadequate intake for fifteen nutrients and significantly the highest prevalence of inadequate sodium intake. In contrast, the 'wheat products' pattern characterized by high intake of bread, noodles, confectioneries and soft drinks showed the highest prevalence of inadequate intake for fourteen nutrients. The median number of nutrients not meeting the DRI as a marker of overall nutritional inadequacy was eight in the 'rice, fish and vegetables' pattern. It was significantly lower at ten in the 'meat and eggs' and eleven in the 'wheat products' patterns (P<0.001). In pregnant Japanese women, the dietary pattern high in rice, fish, vegetables, fruit and some others showed a better profile of nutritional adequacy except for sodium.

Anaemia in the context of pregnancy and HIV/AIDS: A case of Pumwani Maternity Hospital in Nairobi, Kenya

Anemia is a major public health problem in Africa affecting over 80% of women in many countries. It is more common during pregnancy due to the increased demand for iron at different stages of pregnancy. In Kenya, one out of every two mothers is affected by some form of anemia. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) among expectant women further increase risk of anemia prevalence and severity. This study was to determine the socio-economic characteristics, dietary pattern of pregnant women and investigate the relationship between iron deficiency anemia (IDA) and HIV/AIDS in pregnancy. A case-control study was conducted in Pumwani Maternity Hospital in Nairobi Kenya. The HIV status was ascertained through HIV-antibody tests using Determine, Uni- Gold and Tie-Breaker reagents. Cases of 57 seropositive and controls of 57 seronegative pregnant women were randomly and co-currently selected. Their hemoglobin (Hb), demographic, socio-economic characteristics were determined. A 24-hour dietary recall and food frequency were used to determine the food consumption pattern. Results showed that both cases and controls were from low socio-economic status and consumed monotonous diets of plant origin particularly Ugali, a paste made from maize flour and kales vegetables locally known as Sukumawiki. Fruits were rarely consumed. The meals were mainly consumed three times in a day with snacks consumed by an insignificant number of women. With exception of pre-eclampsia, other pregnant-related problems including headache, dizziness, loss of appetite, heartburn and vomiting were more predominant among the cases than in the controls. Iron deficiency anemia was more prevalent and severe among the cases (prevalence=68%, mean Hb=9.551g/dl) than the controls (prevalence=26.3 %, mean Hb=11.974g/dl). The relative risk of being anemic was about two times higher for HIV-infected as of the uninfected pregnant women, (Relative risk=2.33). It is concluded that pregnant women from low socio-economic status consume diets with iron of low biological value, have low Hb and are generally anemic. Moreover, HIV-infected pregnant women have lower Hb and are two times more likely to be anemic than the uninfected. The HIV/AIDS infection is therefore associated with low Hb and higher anemia prevalence and severity among pregnant women. There is, therefore, a need for pre-natal nutrition care system that emphasizes improved consumption of essential nutrients including iron of high biological value and implementation of interventions tailored to check anemia prevalence and severity among pregnant women within the context of HIV/AIDS pandemic and low socioeconomic settings. Keywords: anemia, HIV/AIDS, pregnancy, hemoglobin, iron African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development Vol. 9 (2) 2009: pp. 748-763