Abstract
Nutrition during pregnancy can induce alterations in offspring phenotype. Maternal ratio of protein to non-protein (P:NP) energy has been linked to variations in offspring body composition and adult risk of metabolic disease. This study describes the dietary patterns of pregnant women by tertiles of the P:NP ratio and compares diet to Australian recommendations. Data are from 179 Australian women enrolled in the Women and Their Children’s Health Study. Diet was assessed using a validated 74-item food frequency questionnaire. Food group servings and nutrient intakes were compared to the Australian Guide to Healthy Eating and Australian Nutrient Reference Values. Higher maternal P:NP tertile was positively associated with calcium (P = 0.003), zinc (P = 0.001) and servings of dairy (P = 0.001) and meat (P = 0.001) food groups, and inversely associated with the energy dense, nutrient poor non-core (P = 0.003) food group. Micronutrient intakes were optimized with intermediate protein (18%E–20%E), intermediate fat (28%E–30%E) and intermediate carbohydrate (50%E–54%E) intakes, as indicated in tertile two. Results suggest a moderate protein intake may support pregnant women to consume the largest variety of nutrients across all food groups.
Highlights
IntroductionMaternal nutrition during pregnancy can induce permanent alterations in offspring phenotype [1]and subsequently influence the risk of non-communicable diseases, such as obesity in adult life [2].Variations in maternal macronutrient proportions have been shown to independently affect offspring outcomes, such as growth and body composition [3,4,5,6,7], insulin sensitivity [8], appetite [9], nutrient metabolism [9] and overall energy homeostasis [8] in both pre- and post-natal environments [10].Effects are predicted to continue into adulthood and may have long-term consequences for the risk of metabolic disease [11].the nutrient intakes required to optimize the short-term or long-term health of the offspring is undefined
Micronutrient intakes of calcium (P < 0.01) and zinc (P < 0.01) were positively associated with P:NP tertile, while for vitamin C (P = 0.008) and vitamin E (P = 0.003), there was a negative association with P:NP
Previous studies have reported a mismatch between the eating patterns of Australian women during pregnancy and food group recommendations [36], but suggest that an increased fruit and dairy intake may assist women to meet the nutrient reference values (NRVs) for key nutrients important for childbearing [36]
Summary
Maternal nutrition during pregnancy can induce permanent alterations in offspring phenotype [1]and subsequently influence the risk of non-communicable diseases, such as obesity in adult life [2].Variations in maternal macronutrient proportions have been shown to independently affect offspring outcomes, such as growth and body composition [3,4,5,6,7], insulin sensitivity [8], appetite [9], nutrient metabolism [9] and overall energy homeostasis [8] in both pre- and post-natal environments [10].Effects are predicted to continue into adulthood and may have long-term consequences for the risk of metabolic disease [11].the nutrient intakes required to optimize the short-term or long-term health of the offspring is undefined. Energy in the diet may play an important role in the development of obesity and subsequent non-communicable diseases [12]. This is due to regulatory mechanisms prioritizing the maintenance of an adequate protein intake level at the partial expense of carbohydrate and fat intake [12]. This phenomenon is explained by the protein leverage hypothesis [12], which may lead to overconsumption of carbohydrate coupled with increased energy intake, potentially leading to an increase in adiposity and an increased risk of obesity and metabolic disorders
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