Leopard Diet Research Articles

Inaccurate methods and erroneous conclusions drawn on human-leopard coexistence in India – Response to Puri et al., 2020 “The balancing act: Maintaining leopard–wild prey equilibrium could offer economic benefits to people in a shared forest landscape of central India”

Abstract Scientific research requires selection of accurate research methodology to generate evidence based findings. In a study conducted by Puri et al. (2020) titled “The balancing act: Maintaining leopard–wild prey equilibrium could offer economic benefits to people in a shared forest landscape of central India” the authors have reported occupancy estimate of common leopard without incorporating false positive detections. Such results can be highly inaccurate with an error rate of 50–80%. The authors also identified common leopard scats based on morphological attributes through field surveys which have often been critiqued to be erroneous. Morphological compared with molecular identification of leopard scats can have potential error rates which might range between (7–100%) leading to flawed assessment of leopard diet and implications for conserving large carnivores within human-dominated landscapes of South Asia. Evidence based research provides solutions to adopt strategies and aids conservation of endangered wildlife. Results based on inaccurate methods can mislead decision makers and further exaggerate conclusions drawn. Human-leopard conflicts are a major conservation challenge with implications for human wellbeing, livelihoods and large carnivore coexistence within shared landscapes of South Asia. Studies focused on understanding such human-predator interactions should adhere to correct documentation of facts rather than exaggerating falsified information. We further recommend that research based on proper scientific methods be adopted while providing information on large carnivores within human-dominated landscapes.

Do spotted hyaenas outcompete the big cats in a small, enclosed system in South Africa?

AbstractCarnivores are adapted to kill, meaning sympatric carnivores can have particularly aggressive and harmful competitive interactions. The co‐existence of multiple carnivores in an ecosystem could be restricted by their similarity in ecological niches (e.g. dietary overlap); however, high prey abundances could facilitate their co‐existence. Although the development of small, enclosed reserves (<400 km2) in South Africa has reduced human–carnivore conflict, these systems may increase the likelihood of carnivore intra‐guild competition due to the clumping of competing carnivores into these restricted spaces. Using carnivore scat and kill site analyses, we determined the dietary preferences and overlap of sympatric large carnivores in a small, enclosed reserve, Selati Game Reserve (Selati). Large carnivores in Selati (lions (Panthera leo), spotted hyaenas (Crocuta crocuta) and leopards (Panthera pardus)) preferentially selected for varying combinations of prey size classes. Lions selected for large prey, leopards selected for small prey and spotted hyaenas did not prefer any particular prey size. Additionally, lions had the largest dietary breadth and the diet of leopards and spotted hyaenas overlapped considerably. Coupled with high prey densities in Selati, the predation strategies of the large carnivores could be facilitating their co‐existence. On the other hand, the high degree of dietary overlap among large carnivores suggests that there is strong potential for exploitation competition, particularly between spotted hyaenas and leopards as their diet overlapped extensively (91% and 93% for prey species and size class, respectively). Although spotted hyaenas are potentially outcompeting leopards in Selati, lions were the most dominant large carnivore. Our study reiterates the complexity of carnivore guild interactions and emphasizes how these interactions are subject to variation due to site‐specific circumstances (e.g. composition of prey and carnivore populations). We therefore encourage site‐specific, multi‐carnivore research throughout protected areas in southern Africa.

Leopard (Panthera pardus) density and diet in a forest corridor of Terai: implications for conservation and conflict management

Abstract ContextIncreasing forest fragmentation and degradation has forced wildlife to live in close proximity to humans, increasing the chances of human–wildlife conflict. Leopard (Panthera pardus) typifies the problem faced by large carnivores. It is a threatened species with a wide distribution, with a large part of their range outside protected areas, leaving them vulnerable to human–leopard conflict. Understanding their status and diet in such non-protected forests is necessary for their long-term conservation. AimsThe present study aimed to estimate leopard density and assess their diet in a non-protected forest. MethodsA camera-trapping survey was carried out in the Kamdi forest corridor outside of protected areas, covering 791.29km2 in the western part of Terai Arc Landscape (TAL) in Nepal. Leopard density was estimated based on the photographs obtained in camera traps, using Bayesian Explicit Capture–recapture (B-SECR) models. Scats of leopards were opportunistically collected (n=60) and their diet analysed through micro-histological characters of hair remains. The frequency of occurrence and relative biomass of different prey species consumed by leopard was calculated. Key resultsLeopard density was estimated to be 1.50 (±0.49 s.e.) 100km−2 in the survey area. Similarly, we identified 13 prey species in the leopard scats. Wild prey contributed the majority (67.8%) of leopard diet, including 23.2% of wild boar (Sus scrofa) and 18.3% of spotted deer (Axis axis). Nearly one-third of leopard diet consists of domestic livestock (cattle, goat, sheep) and dog. ConclusionsLeopard density was found to be relatively low in the forest corridor compared with protected areas. Nearly one-third of leopard diet from domestic livestock and dogs suggests that human–leopard conflict could be problematic in the survey area. ImplicationsIncreasing prey density in the forest corridor and improving livestock husbandry in the periphery will contribute to increase leopard density, reduce the human–leopard conflict and enhance the functionality of the corridor.

The balancing act: Maintaining leopard-wild prey equilibrium could offer economic benefits to people in a shared forest landscape of central India

Abstract Human-felid interactions impose financial burden on people through livestock loss, and on wildlife managers and conservationists through investments in conflict resolution measures. Leopards (Panthera pardus) are among the most adaptable carnivores, but their widespread occurrence in human-dominated landscapes makes them highly vulnerable to negative interactions with people. Beyond their role in maintaining ecological balance, they may also provide economic benefits through control of wild prey populations in human-use areas. We assessed leopard distribution based on indirect sign surveys, and spatial drivers of livestock/human attacks by leopards based on interview surveys of local residents, in a forest landscape shared by humans and leopards in central India. We also examined the role of wild prey in leopard diet and the extent to which they offset leopard depredation on domestic livestock. Leopards occupied 80% of the landscape, positively influenced by forest cover and relative abundance of wild prey; size of human settlements had a negative influence. Average probability of livestock/human attacks was 84%, driven mostly by size of cattle-holding by local residents and anthropogenic disturbance within forests. Nearly 90% of leopard diet was composed of primates or wild ungulate herbivores; non-wild prey (domestic livestock and free-ranging dogs) accounted for less than 3% of total biomass consumed. Under hypothetical scenarios wherein wild prey population reduced by 25%, 50% and 75%, we estimated that the contribution of domestic livestock towards leopard diet would increase to 21%, 40% and 60% respectively in order to support the current leopard population. We demonstrate that adequate forest cover and wild prey abundance allow leopards to persist in shared, human-modified landscapes. We use a novel approach for mapping spatial risk of livestock depredation and predict future scenarios under reduced wild prey populations. An ecological imbalance caused by decline in either leopard or wild prey populations could result in a concomitant increase in crop loss (to wild herbivores) or livestock depredation (by leopards), ensuing greater financial losses to local residents. An understanding of the ecological services and economic benefits conferred by carnivores could help in better valuing and conserving conflict-prone species in shared habitats.

Ecological opportunity drives individual dietary specialization in leopards.

Individual specialization, when individuals exploit only a subset of resources utilized by the population, is a widespread phenomenon. It provides the basis for evolutionary diversification and can impact population and community dynamics. Both phenotypic traits and environmental conditions are predicted to influence individual specialization; however, its adaptive consequences are poorly understood, particularly among large mammalian carnivores that play an important role in shaping ecosystems. We used observations of 2,960 kills made by 49 leopards Panthera pardus in the Sabi Sand Game Reserve, South Africa, to quantify the magnitude of individual dietary specialization in a solitary large carnivore, and to examine the proximate and ultimate drivers of this behaviour. We found evidence of individual specialization in leopard diet, with respect to both the species and size of prey killed. Males tended to be more specialized than females, likely because they could access a wider range of prey due to larger body size. Similarly, individuals that encountered a greater diversity of prey tended to be more specialized. Our results confirmed that ecological opportunity was a key determinant of individual specialization; however, contrary to predictions, per capita resource availability (and by extension, intraspecific competition) did not affect the degree of specialization exhibited by individuals. Surprisingly, dietary specialization appeared to disadvantage male leopards. Specialist males overlapped with fewer resident females, had fewer cubs born on their home ranges and had fewer cubs survive to independence on their home ranges than generalist males. This may have resulted from the high degree of environmental stochasticity experienced during our study, as dietary specialization is expected to advantage individuals more during periods of resource predictability. In summary, we showed that a species usually considered to be a dietary generalist was in fact a heterogeneous collection of specialist and generalist individuals. Individual specialization is typically assumed to be maintained by disruptive and/or fluctuating selection; hence, the somewhat paradoxical coexistence of both in the same population might be explained by a dynamic evolutionary equilibrium that exists between specialists and generalists, in which each benefit under different conditions.

Diet of common leopard and leopard cat in Murree, Kotli Sattian and Kahuta National Park, Pakistan: contrasting patterns of domestic animal and wild carnivore consumption

Diet of common leopard and leopard cat in Murree, Kotli Sattian and Kahuta National Park, Pakistan: contrasting patterns of domestic animal and wild carnivore consumption

The effects of aridity on land use, biodiversity and dietary breadth in leopards

Global distributions of most terrestrial large mammals have been dramatically reduced through the loss and fragmentation of natural habitat. These impacts are likely to be intensified by the effects of global climate change. Here we use two free roaming leopard (Panthera pardus) populations to explore the intersecting influences of climatic conditions and land use on the feeding ecology of a large carnivore. We predicted that greater aridity would influence land use, and that this would in turn influence species richness and consequently leopard diet. We compared diet, mammal species richness and land use patterns in two topographically similar regions of south-western South Africa, the Boland, a mesic temperate region and the Little Karoo, a semi-arid region located approximately 200 km to the east. The Boland has retained only ∼33% of natural land at low elevations, compared to over 90% in the Little Karoo. Extensive camera trap surveys in both regions revealed far lower mammal species richness in the Boland (22 species) than the Little Karoo (51 species). Leopard diet differed significantly between the two regions; leopards in the Boland fed on fewer (n = 15), smaller prey species (ranging from 3–25 kg) associated specifically with mountain habitat. By contrast, leopards in the Little Karoo had a broader prey range (n = 21), and were able to access larger prey (up to 138 kg). These results suggest that aridity has a significant influence on anthropogenic land use patterns, and that these changes are reflected both in the richness of the mammal community, and the diet of a large carnivore. However, the less intensive land use in the Little Karoo also increased the potential for conflict between leopards and people. Increased aridity as a result of global climate change may thus present opportunities to enhance the conservation status of free-roaming carnivores, but may also increase the potential for human-wildlife conflict as carnivores recolonize previously transformed areas.

Panthera pardus fusca (Family: Felidae) Diet Composition from Lamjung, Nepal

With the increasing threats to leopard associated mainly with human activities and decline in prey species, leopard population is at risk and is known to use areas outside the protected areas. Community forest might be the important source for the long-term population sustainability of leopard. This study was conducted in Thuli community forest of Lamjung, Nepal. In this study, non-invasive sampling techniques for the collection of scats adopted. Total (n=40) scats were collected opportunistically. The presence of leopard was confirmed by indirect signs of pugmarks, scats, scratches and kill of cattle in the shed. A total of 12 prey species were successfully identified based on the medullary and cuticle structure of hair samples. Around 55.20% of leopard diet was contributed by domestic animals followed by wild animals, which signifies the conflict with the study area. Rodents and bird's species had also contributed in the diet of leopard with 10.98% and 7.54% respectively. Around 8.17%, portion of diet contribution was from primates. Devoid of wild prey and abundance of domestic animals in scats contents highlight the urgent need of conservation intervention in the area and strengthening the community tolerance.

Factors associated with co-occurrence of large carnivores in a human-dominated landscape

We investigated the factors facilitating co-occurrence of two large carnivores, tigers (Panthera tigris) and common leopards (Panthera pardus), within a human-dominated landscape. We estimated their density and population size using camera-trap photographs and examined spatial segregation of habitats, temporal activity pattern, and diets in Chitwan National Park, Nepal. A Bayesian spatially-explicit capture-recapture model estimated densities of 3.2–4.6 (3.94 ± 0.37) tigers and 2.6–4.1 (3.31 ± 0.4) leopards per 100 km2 with abundance of 70–102 tigers and 66–105 leopards. Tigers occupied the prime habitats (grasslands and riverine forests) in alluvial floodplains of the Park whereas leopards appeared in Sal forests and marginal areas where livestock are present. Both tigers and leopards showed crepuscular activity patterns with a high overlap but tigers were less active during the day compared to leopards. Leopards’ activity in the day increased in the presence of tigers. Tiger and leopard diet overlapped considerably (90%). Compared to leopards, tigers consumed a higher proportion of the large prey and a smaller proportion of livestock. Our study demonstrates that sympatric large carnivores can coexist in high densities in prey rich areas that contain a mosaics of habitats. To increase the resilience and size of the Chitwan carnivore population, strategies are needed to increase prey biomass and prevent livestock depredation in adjacent forests. Long-term monitoring is also required to obtain a detailed understanding of the interaction between the large carnivores and their effects on local communities living in forest fringes within the landscape.

Diet and prey selection by snow leopards in the Nepalese Himalayas.

Visual attractiveness and rarity often results in large carnivores being adopted as flagship species for stimulating conservation awareness. Their hunting behaviour and prey selection can affect the population dynamics of their prey, which in turn affects the population dynamics of these large carnivores. Therefore, our understanding of their trophic ecology and foraging strategies is important for predicting their population dynamics and consequently for developing effective conservation programs. Here we concentrate on an endangered species of carnivores, the snow leopard, in the Himalayas. Most previous studies on snow leopard diet lack information on prey availability and/or did not genetically check, whether the identification of snow leopard scats is correct, as their scats are similar to those of other carnivores. We studied the prey of snow leopard in three Himalayan regions in Nepal (Sagarmatha National Park (SNP), Lower Mustang (LM) and Upper Manang (UM) in the Annapurna Conservation Area, during winter and summer in 2014–2016. We collected 268 scats along 139.3 km linear transects, of which 122 were genetically confirmed to belong to snow leopard. Their diet was identified by comparing hairs in scats with our reference collection of the hairs of potential prey. We determined prey availability using 32–48 camera-traps and 4,567 trap nights. In the SNP, the most frequent prey in snow leopard faeces was the Himalayan tahr in both winter and summer. In LM and UM, its main prey was blue sheep in winter, but yak and goat in summer. In terms of relative biomass consumed, yak was the main prey everywhere in both seasons. Snow leopard preferred large prey and avoided small prey in summer but not in winter, with regional differences. It preferred domestic to wild prey only in winter, and in SNP. Unlike most other studies carried out in the same area, our study uses genetic methods for identifying the source of the scat. Studies solely based on visual identification of samples may be strongly biased. Diet studies based on frequency of occurrence of prey tend to overestimate the importance of small prey, which may be consumed more often, but contribute less energy than large prey. However, even assessments based on prey biomass are unlikely to be accurate as we do not know whether the actual size of the prey consumed corresponds to the average size used to calculate the biomass eaten. For example, large adults may be too difficult to catch and therefore mostly young animals are consumed, whose weight is much lower. We show that snow leopard consumes a diverse range of prey, which varies both regionally and seasonally. We conclude that in order to conserve snow leopards it is also necessary to conserve its main wild species of prey, which will reduce the incidence of losses of livestock.

Spatial distribution and dietary niche breadth of the leopard Panthera pardus (Carnivora: Felidae) in the northeastern Himalayan region of Pakistan

Knowledge of a predato's diet is important for understanding its ecology and for predicting its influence on the dynamics of prey populations. We investigated the spatial distribution and diet composition of the leopard ( Panthera pardus ) in the northeastern Himalayan region of Pakistan. We used molecular scatology technique to identify scats of common leopard collected from the field. The leopard was recorded at 30 different surveyed sites with an elevational range between 757-1891 m a.s.l. Its diet comprised 17 prey species, including both wild and domestic prey. Frequency of occurrence of wild prey was approximately 35% of the total leopard diet, while domestic prey contributed approximately 59%. The dietary niche breadth of the leopard was found to be broad during the spring but narrow during the winter. Prey species diversity index was high during summer but low during winter. Results of the current study highlight that common leopard is mainly subsisting on domestic animals, which may result in negative human-leopard interactions. We suggest that local communities should be educated to conserve the leopard and its wild prey species.

Brown hyaena and leopard diets on private land in the Soutpansberg Mountains, South Africa

Brown hyaena and leopard diets on private land in the Soutpansberg Mountains, South Africa

Tiger and leopard diets in western Thailand: Evidence for overlap and potential consequences

Interference competition by tigers, Panthera tigris, is widely reported to reduce leopard, Panthera pardus, density or cause its shift to more a marginal habitat. In Southeast Asia, lack of a medium sized prey, spotted deer (Axis axis), and increased consumption of sambar (Rusa unicolor) by leopards amplifies dietary overlap between these two large felids. In our study area in western Thailand, leopard density was 2.4 times that of tigers. Using scat analysis we estimated prey biomass in the diet of each species to examine resource competition between these species. Tigers had a 0.89 spatial overlap with leopards and leopards a 0.92 overlap with tigers. Larger prey in this system (>100 kg) composed 89.8 Ackerman's coefficient, ACF, and 79.3% Chakrabati's coefficient, CCF of the biomass in tiger diet and 47.0% (ACF) and 45.3% (CCF) of the biomass in leopard diet. Dietary overlap of prey >100 kg versus smaller prey (≤37 kg) between these felids was 74.4% (ACF) and 81.2% (CCF). Dense cover at our site may reduce interference competition from tigers. In turn, high leopard density and leopard consumption of young sambar likely increases resource competition with tigers and thus potentially reduces tiger density. Given current small tiger population sizes, it is important to recognize that leopards may compete with and potentially suppress tiger numbers at some locations throughout their range and this topic needs further study.

Seasonal food habits of the endangered Indochinese leopardPanthera pardus delacouriin a protected area of North West Thailand

The Indochinese leopard Panthera pardus delacouri has experienced a sharp decline in numbers and distribution, especially in Thailand. We have analyzed its diet in Om Koi Wildlife Sanctuary of North West Thailand, where only wild prey species were present. Scats were collected during the dry-hot and the dry-cold seasons. The Indian muntjac appeared to be the staple of the leopard's diet, particularly in the dry-cold season, and consumed equally with the Indian wild boar in the dry-hot one. The occurrence of the Indochinese hog deer in the diet of the leopard in Om Koi represents the first detection record of this endangered species in North West Thailand, after being long extirpated. During the dry-hot season, poachers slashed and burnt portions of forest to flush game and to provide space for poppy fields. Muntjacs are sensitive to both forest fires and poaching, whereas Indian wild boar are resilient to disturbance, which may explain their alternation in diet.

A Review of our Current Knowledge of Clouded Leopards (Neofelis nebulosa)

Little is known about clouded leopards (Neofelis nebulosa), who have a vulnerable population that extends across southern Asia. We reviewed the literature and synthesized what is known about their ecology and behavior. Much of the published literature either note detections within and on the edges of their range, or are anecdotal observations, many of which are decades if not over a century old. Clouded leopards are a medium-sized felid, with distinctive cloud-shape markings, and notably long canines relative to skull size. Estimates for population densities range from 0.58 to 6.53 individuals per 100 km2. Only 7 clouded leopards have been tracked via radio-collars, and home range estimates range from 33.6-39.7 km2 for females and 35.5-43.5 km2 for males. Most accounts describe clouded leopards as nocturnal, but radio telemetry studies showed that clouded leopards have arrhythmic activity patterns, with highest activity in the morning followed by evening crepuscular hours. There has never been a targeted study of clouded leopard diet, but observations show that they consume a variety of animals, including ungulates, primates, and rodents. We encourage future study of their population density and range to inform conservation efforts, and ecological studies in order to understand the species and its ecological niche.

Sympatric snow leopards and Tibetan wolves: coexistence of large carnivores with human-driven potential competition

The snow leopard Panthera uncia coexists with the wolf Canis lupus throughout most of its distribution range. We analysed the food habits of snow leopards and wolves in their sympatric range in the Karakoram mountains of Pakistan. A total of 131 genotyped scats (N = 74, snow leopard; N = 57, Tibetan wolf) were collected during the cold periods (i.e. winter and spring) of 2011 and 2012 in the Hushey valley. Large mammals, i.e. livestock and ibex, accounted for 84.8 and 83.1% of the diet (relative frequency) of the snow leopard and the wolf, respectively. Domestic prey was the staple of the diet of both snow leopards (66.6%) and wolves (75.1%). Ibex Capra ibex, the only wild ungulate in our study area, contributed 18.2 and 16.9% of relative frequencies in the diets of the snow leopard and the wolf, respectively. In winter, the snow leopard heavily relied on domestic sheep (43.3%) for food, whereas the wolf preyed mainly on domestic goats (43.4%). Differently from other study areas, both snow leopards and wolves showed no apparent prey preference (Jacobs index: snow leopard min. − 0.098, max. 0.102; Tibetan wolf min. − 0.120, max. 0.03). In human depauperate areas, with livestock and only a few wild prey, should competitive interactions arise, two main scenarios could be expected, with either predator as a winner. In both cases, the best solution could primarily impinge on habitat restoration, so that a balance could be found between these predators, who have already coexisted for thousands of years.

Re‐evaluating models for estimating prey consumption by leopards

AbstractBiomass regression models and associated correction factors derived from feeding trials are essential to convert frequency of prey occurrence from scats into biomass and numbers of prey individuals consumed by carnivores. These dietary analyses form a substantial part of many research projects on predator–prey relationships and human–carnivore conflicts. So far, diet studies of leopard (Panthera pardus) applied the linear biomass model developed for puma (Puma concolor). Recent works, however, suggested that non‐linear biomass models are more meaningful for estimating prey biomass and numbers, and presented a generalized model of biomass consumption for all tropical felids. This model accounted for partial consumption of prey, but did not include ecological factors limiting prey consumption by felids. Hence, using 35 feeding trials we developed a leopard specific regression equation by setting a consumption limit for leopard per prey. This new correction factor takes into account the proportion of inedible matter of prey and daily food intake. Besides refining the leopard specific biomass models, our study also showed the saturation in scat production with consumption of larger prey, which was described in recent studies. A reanalysis of prey consumption by leopards from published diet studies by using our new regression models suggests a significant decrease in estimated absolute numbers of prey individuals consumed. This finding and the higher share of larger prey in leopard diet may affect subsequent analyses using prey profiles, and may affect decisions made in biodiversity conservation and management, especially in the area of human–carnivore conflict.

Leopard diets and landowner perceptions of human wildlife conflict in the Soutpansberg Mountains, South Africa

Human-wildlife conflict between carnivores and livestock and game owners is an issue of high conservation concern and has led to the global decline of many large carnivore species. Research has shown that carnivores are often blamed for higher levels of predation of livestock and game than actually occurs and this often leads to retaliatory killing. The aim of this study was to obtain information via scat analysis on the range of prey species taken by leopards in the Soutpansberg Mountains, South Africa, and combine these data with self-reported accounts of livestock predation from local landowners to examine differences between real and perceived leopard predation. Results showed that despite landowners reporting frequent events of leopard predation of livestock and introduced farmed game across the Soutpansberg farming community, no evidence of these species were found in leopard diets. The most frequently eaten species by relative biomass were bushbuck, hyrax and vervet monkeys; in contrast, the farmers reported cattle and impala as often being taken by leopards. Despite sharing the landscape with domestic cattle and introduced game, leopards in the Soutpansberg do not frequently utilise these species as prey and instead focus their diets on wild species. Human-carnivore conflict can be reduced by overcoming the mismatch between actual and perceived levels of predation via landowner education, effective anti-predation measures, an improved government response to reports of livestock predation and potentially giving economic value to problem animals via trophy hunting.

When pork is not on the menu: Assessing trophic competition between large carnivores and poachers

Overexploitation of wildlife for meat is a widespread phenomenon, which drives populations of many species toward extinction and may in turn affect large carnivores. Therefore, human hunters may compete with large carnivores over food resources and threaten their survival. In this study, we assessed the trophic competition of endangered Persian leopard with local poachers in Golestan National Park, Iran, where poaching has depleted populations of three ungulate species by 66–89% in the past decades. We compared leopard diet (77 scats) with prey offtake by poachers (75 poacher seizure records). In addition, we estimated prey abundance by line transect sampling (186km), camera trapping (2777 camera days), double-observer point-counts (64 scans) and dung counts (38km). Using interview surveys with local poachers, we also quantified their stated hunting preference. We documented a narrow hunting specialization of leopard (niche breadth 0.24) and poachers (niche breadth 0.19), and exclusivity (niche overlap 0.31) of their dietary/hunting niches, which suggest no exploitative competition between these two apex predators. This pattern likely results from the major role of wild boar in leopard diet. Due to religious beliefs, poachers avoid hunting this species and its population has increased in contrast to other ungulates. Considering the general avoidance of Suidae species across leopard range, depletion of alternative prey species may have resulted in a prey-switching strategy by leopard. The influence of religious beliefs and taboos on hunting preference and, consequently, on prey populations and predators' trophic niches shows the importance of incorporation of cultural beliefs in conservation practices.

Predation may counteract climatic change as a driving force for movements of mountain ungulates

Temperature variations are expected to influence altitudinal movements of mountain herbivores and, in turn, those of their predators, but relevant information is scarce. We evaluated monthly relationships between temperature and altitude used by a large mountain-dwelling herbivore, the Himalayan tahr Hemitragus jemlahicus, and its main predator, the snow leopard Panthera uncia, in an area of central Himalaya for five consecutive years (2006–2010). In contrast to expectations, there was no significant direct relationship between altitude of tahr sightings and temperature. The mean altitude of tahr sightings decreased by c. 200m throughout our study. As expected, snow leopard movements tracked those of tahr, although the core area of the snow leopard did not move downwards. Tahr remained the staple of the snow leopard diet: we suggest that the former did not move upwards in reaction to higher temperature to avoid encounters with the latter. Avoidance of competition with the larger common leopard Panthera pardus at lower altitudes could explain why snow leopards did not shift their core area downwards. Apparently, interspecific interactions (predation; competition) influenced movements of Himalayan tahr and snow leopards more than climatic variations.