Development Of Theology Research Articles

Development of a Novel Media-independent Communication Theology for Accessing Local & Web-based Data: Case Study with Robotic Subsystems

Realizing media independence in today’s communication system remains an open problem by and large. Information retrieval, mostly through the Internet, is becoming the most demanding feature in technological progress and this web-based data access should ideally be in user-selective form. While blind-folded access of data through the World Wide Web is quite streamlined, the counter-half of the facet, namely, seamless access of information database pertaining to a specific end-device, e.g. robotic systems, is still in a formative stage. This paradigm of access as well as systematic query-based retrieval of data, related to the physical enddevice is very crucial in designing the Internet-based network control of the same in real-time. Moreover, this control of the end-device is directly linked up to the characteristics of three coupled metrics, namely, ‘multiple databases’, ‘multiple servers’ and ‘multiple inputs’ (to each server). This triad, viz. database-input-server (DIS) plays a significant role in overall performance of the system, the background details of which is still very sketchy in global research community. This work addresses the technical issues associated with this theology, with specific reference to formalism of a customized DIS considering real-time delay analysis. The present paper delineates the developmental paradigms of novel multi-input multioutput communication semantics for retrieving web-based information from physical devices, namely, two representative robotic sub-systems in a coherent and homogeneous mode. The developed protocol can be entrusted for use in real-time in a complete user-friendly manner.

NATURAL DIVINE CAUSATION, CAUSAL EXCLUSION, AND OVERDETERMINATION: COMMENT ON MIKAEL LEIDENHAG

AbstractIn his article “The Blurred Line between Theistic Evolution and Intelligent Design” and his response “The Problem of Natural Divine Causation and the Benefits of Partial Causation”, Mikael Leidenhag uses Jaegwon Kim's work on causal exclusion to critique what he calls “Natural Divine Causation” (NDC). Although I agree with Leidenhag that questions about divine action can fruitfully be posed in terms of Kim's so‐called Causal Exclusion Argument, I take issue with the way he attempts to carry out this task and the reasons he offers against the overdetermination response to the Causal Exclusion Argument.

Polish Catholic Religious Culture in the Post-Tridentine Era

This article presents Catholic religious culture in Poland in post-Tridentine era. It takes into account one of the manifestations of change taking place at the time, namely a dynamic development of male and female religious orders. The article shows the connection between the intensification of religious life and the development of ascetic and mystical theology resulting from the general renewal of Catholic theology. The influence of the Jesuits on the spirituality of female orders as well as their role in introducing the practice of methodical mental prayer is highlighted. The impact of Spanish spirituality on Polish religious life after the Council of Trent is also emphasised, with special attention drawn to Saint Ignatius of Loyola and the Jesuits, Saint John of the Cross and the Discalced Carmelites, Saint Theresa of Ávila and her Discalced Carmelite nuns, Louis of Granada with the Dominicans, and Saint Peter of Alcántara, one of the founders of the Franciscan Friars of the Strict Observance. Polish Catholic religious literature of the post-Tridentine era is also reflected upon, including ascetic and mystical writings adopted from Italian and Spanish religious literature.

Contextual pastoral counselling: Paradigm shifts in practical theological development since the middle 20th century

There have been many changes in pastoral care and counselling and pastoral theology since the middle 20th century. At first, the changes were viewed as an evolutionary process as the discipline evolved into an authoritative science. Although it seems as if pastoral care and counselling followed the footsteps of psychology, there were important paradigm shifts towards contextual pastoral counselling based on the Word of God. The major question of this article is, what important paradigm shifts in the development of practical theology since the middle 20th century can be distinguished that are in line with the requirements for contextual pastoral counselling? In an attempt to answer this question, a thorough subject-specific literature study was conducted by looking at prominent scholars’ view on the development of pastoral theology. The article is divided into five main parts. The first part focused on the development of practical (and the subdivision, pastoral) theology, with emphases on important paradigm shifts and the work of prominent scholars. The second part focused on the current challenges facing pastoral theology. The third part focused on paradigmatic positions, scientific research markers and approaches, and different layers of meaning unique to pastoral theology. The fourth part focused on diakonia with a religious consciousness of transformative moral or ethical orientation. The article concluded with a reflection on how the paradigm shifts are in line with the requirements of contextual pastoral counselling. The conclusion of the article is that together with the normative deductive aspects of pastoral theology, the inclusion of context-specific empirical experiences is an aspect that must be taken into consideration. Contribution: The primary contribution of this article is that a systematic description of the important paradigm shifts in the development of practical theology since the middle 20th century was given and brought in evaluation against the requirements for contextual pastoral counselling. The objective was to enhance appropriate theory formation with the aim to focus on the distinctive character of pastoral counselling, and its connectedness to the broader field of practical theological science. These insights link to the focus and scope of the journal, because it contributes to the epistemological dialogue of practical theology.

A Turn to Liturgy in Contemporary Political Theology

Contemporary development of Christian political theology has been marked, among others, by a turn to liturgy. At first glance, such a turn might be easily associated with the sound principle of the inextricable connection between vita activa and vita contemplativa. The turn to liturgy, therefore, aims to affirm that mystics (the life of prayer) and politics (social engagement) should go hand in hand. However, does this classical idea stand as the sole reason for the turn to liturgy in the contemporary discussion in political theology? In this article, the author argues that while this classical argument still provides part of the answer to that question, the turn to liturgy in contemporary political theology to a considerable extent deals with the question of self-definition of the Church in exercising its political engagement. The turn to liturgy insists that the Church is inherently political, and thus its political significance is not defined by its relationship with the politics of the state alone. On the contrary, the political nature of the Church and its political role wells up from its identity as the sign and instrument of the Kingdom of God. As such, in its political engagement, the Church ought not to be considered merely as a social or voluntary organization.

Scientism and Secularism: Learning to Respond to a Dangerous Ideology

Scientism and Secularism: Learning to Respond to a Dangerous Ideology

NORMATIVITY AND BIBLICAL CRITICISM

The first thematic section of this issue of Zygon: Journal of Religion and Science, on “Humans, Religion, and Normativity,” features two articles. Bruce Reichenbach analyzes three phases of philosophical thought regarding what it is to be human; for the last phase identified, strong artificial intelligence (AI), he asks the question of where in strong AI intentional action and providing moral justification, that is, normativity, is to be found—he sees an incompatibility between strong AI and a Christian understanding of personhood. Joona Auvinen provides a critical examination of whether or not, and in what way exactly, the aims characteristic of religious practice are normatively significant; he argues that this is highly dependent both on controversial issues concerning the nature of religion, and on a number of controversial metanormative issues. In the “Symposium on Science, Religion, and the Rise of Biblical Criticism,” which was organized by James Ungureanu, the importance of and need for greater interdisciplinary collaboration between philosophers, theologians, scholars of religion, and historians is demonstrated in tracing the origins and development of the “conflict thesis” between science and religion. After Ungureanu's introduction, seven articles highlight the often neglected role that biblical criticism played in guiding and constructing narratives of conflict. Paul Lim analyzes the early Boyle Lectures held around 1700, to show how science and religion were addressed by three representative Anglican clerics at the time; he argues that all three Boyle lecturers sought to re-instantiate the Renaissance desideratum of returning to the sources of pure religion and praxis. Diego Lucci searches for the roots of John Locke's theory of personal identity and shows that this consciousness-based theory resulted not only from his agnosticism on substance, but also from his biblical theology; Locke rejected the resurrection of the same body and maintained that the soul dies at physical death and will be resurrected by divine miracle. Jon Thompson traces a naturalization of scriptural reason, or early Enlightenment attitudes to religious mysteries, across the seventeenth century, not so much to mainstream Reformed theology—as has been claimed in literature—but to non-mainstream developments of Protestantism, the Cambridge Platonists, and John Locke. Ungureanu brings the Symposium to the nineteenth century, and particularly to Andrew D. White, the alleged cofounder of the conflict thesis; he demonstrates how White tracked the development of the “scientific interpretation” of the Bible in his magnum opus. Nathan Bossoh analyzes how at the end of the nineteenth century the boundaries of “law” shifted, using the eighth Duke of Argyll as his interlocutor; Argyll steered a middle position between the traditional acceptance and liberal rejection of miracles and biblical revelation. Stuart Mathieson shows how the Victoria Institute, established in London in 1865 and frequently accused of being early “creationists,” found similarities in the reliance on hypotheses of both Darwin and biblical criticism; this led to an approach that was later taken up by the authors of The Fundamentals (1910–1915). Samuel Loncar situates the recent historicized origins story of “science and religion” in the history of philosophy and its connections to theology and Scripture; he shows how science and religion, as historians’ categories, derive from philosophy's tensions with theology in the transformation of the medieval university into a major research institution. This issue contains five contributions in the Articles section. Antje Jackelén, Archbishop of Uppsala and primate of the Church of Sweden, reflects on technology, theology, and spirituality in a digital age marked by polarization, populism, protectionism, post-truth, and patriarchy. Mirjam Schilling offers a virocentric perspective on evil; she argues on the basis of the biology of viruses that an additional layer of complexity on good and evil is needed over and above simply regarding viruses as malicious entities from an anthropocentric perspective. Glen Moran provides a glimpse into the use of online platforms by a prominent Muslim voice, Yasir Qadhi, to promote his views on Islam and evolution; Qadhi turns out to hold a relatively nuanced position on the compatibility between Islam and evolution, based on his understanding of the scientific consensus and Islamic scripture. César Marin et al. study the effects of academic degree and discipline on religious and evolutionary views in Chile and Colombia; they find that these effects differ between the two countries studied and attribute this to especially marked differences in high school and university curricula. Emily Qureshi-Hurst and Christopher Bennett address outstanding issues with Robert Russell's model of Non-Interventionist Objective Divine Action, focusing on quantum biology and the problem of evil; they offer potential solutions to weaknesses that they identify in the model, to improve the viability of its application to theistic evolution. The issue ends with my review of Elaine Howard Ecklund's Why Science and Faith Needs Each Other: Eight Values That Move Us Beyond Fear.

METHODOLOGY OF SOCIAL TEACHING OF THE ECUMENICAL PATRIARCHATE

Orthodox social doctrine as a discipline is formed without the elements of scholastic thinking that are characteristic of Catholicism. This is due to the fact that social doctrine in Orthodoxy is thought of as an expression of tradition, not the teaching of the church. Also, the methodology of the social doctrine of the Ecumenical Patriarchate was significantly influenced by the fact that the initial principle for all reflections was the value of the dignity of the individual. The absolutization of this value has made it possible to create a Christian humanism that opposes the ideological extremes of modern cultural wars, including the abuse of the idea of human rights. The ROC uses methodological anti-scholasticism in the construction of social doctrine to legitimize the ideas of Orthodox fundamentalism. Against this background, the social doctrine of the Ecumenical Patriarchate is becoming a worldview alternative, critical to the development of Ukrainian theology and education.

Raakpunte in die ontwikkeling van ekumene in die wêreld met ekumeniese ontwikkelinge in die gereformeerde kerke in Suid-Afrika (1990–2020)

Points of communality in the development of ecumenism worldwide with reformed churches in South Africa (1990–2020)This historic-critical study analyses the development of ecumenism from 1990 to 2020 within the traditional Afrikaans speaking reformed churches in South Africa. The study attempts to determine whether the so-called change or shift in ecumenism within reformed churches and ecumenical bodies worldwide, influenced the theology and practice of ecumenism in Afrikaans-speaking churches in South Africa (1990 to 2020). Afrikaans-speaking reformed churches not only face political and social challenges in South Africa, but also face other major challenges brought about by a postmodern society and theological developments from 1990 to 2020. The development of ecumenism in reformed churches in the world, as described by Plaatjies-Van Huffel (2011:1–11) consists of a shift from conciliar ecumenism to transformative receptive ecumenism. In the past 30 years conciliar ecumenism took its stance in absolute certainties derived from a specific viewpoint on Scripture. Conciliar ecumenism partially failed because some reformed churches excluded other reformed churches from church unity, based on a particular interpretation of Scripture. These exclusions were claimed to be based upon the “authority” derived from Scripture. This ecumenical practice did not lead to significant church unity. The transformative receptive ecumenism, on the other hand, tends to reach out to the marginalised people of God, and not only try to transform the unrighteousness in the lives of people, but also tends to learn from and accommodate the needy in the understanding of ecumenism. If the developments in worldwide ecumenism influenced ecumenical thought among reformed Afrikaans-speaking churches, the question arises: to what extent was transformative receptive ecumenism able to contribute to a better understanding of ecumenism and church unity – especially in the development of an African transformative receptive ecumenism. Also, if a shift in ecumenical practise took place, does that mean that the conciliar ecumenism of the past was of minimal importance? Is a new understanding of ecumenism (as in transformative receptive ecumenism) the alpha and omega of ecumenism in theory and practice? Shouldn’t transformative receptive ecumenism be further discussed by all churches in South Africa and the world to bring forth an ecumenical model that suits the South African situation as part of worldwide ecumenism?This chapter attempts to understand recent developments and issues within the reformed ecumenical societies and agencies in the world, after which the Afrikaans-speaking historic-reformed churches will be viewed in terms of the understanding of their calling to ecumenism. The developments and issues in the reformed world will be compared with the latest developments and issues within the Afrikaans-speaking reformed churches. A conclusion based on a comparison between ecumenism in the world and in South Africa will be drawn before some remarks on the future of ecumenical understanding concludes this study.

Raakpunte in die ontwikkeling van ekumene in die wêreld met ekumeniese ontwikkelinge in die gereformeerde kerke in Suid-Afrika (1990–2020)

Points of communality in the development of ecumenism worldwide with reformed churches in South Africa (1990–2020)This historic-critical study analyses the development of ecumenism from 1990 to 2020 within the traditional Afrikaans speaking reformed churches in South Africa. The study attempts to determine whether the so-called change or shift in ecumenism within reformed churches and ecumenical bodies worldwide, influenced the theology and practice of ecumenism in Afrikaans-speaking churches in South Africa (1990 to 2020). Afrikaans-speaking reformed churches not only face political and social challenges in South Africa, but also face other major challenges brought about by a postmodern society and theological developments from 1990 to 2020. The development of ecumenism in reformed churches in the world, as described by Plaatjies-Van Huffel (2011:1–11) consists of a shift from conciliar ecumenism to transformative receptive ecumenism. In the past 30 years conciliar ecumenism took its stance in absolute certainties derived from a specific viewpoint on Scripture. Conciliar ecumenism partially failed because some reformed churches excluded other reformed churches from church unity, based on a particular interpretation of Scripture. These exclusions were claimed to be based upon the “authority” derived from Scripture. This ecumenical practice did not lead to significant church unity. The transformative receptive ecumenism, on the other hand, tends to reach out to the marginalised people of God, and not only try to transform the unrighteousness in the lives of people, but also tends to learn from and accommodate the needy in the understanding of ecumenism. If the developments in worldwide ecumenism influenced ecumenical thought among reformed Afrikaans-speaking churches, the question arises: to what extent was transformative receptive ecumenism able to contribute to a better understanding of ecumenism and church unity – especially in the development of an African transformative receptive ecumenism. Also, if a shift in ecumenical practise took place, does that mean that the conciliar ecumenism of the past was of minimal importance? Is a new understanding of ecumenism (as in transformative receptive ecumenism) the alpha and omega of ecumenism in theory and practice? Shouldn’t transformative receptive ecumenism be further discussed by all churches in South Africa and the world to bring forth an ecumenical model that suits the South African situation as part of worldwide ecumenism?This chapter attempts to understand recent developments and issues within the reformed ecumenical societies and agencies in the world, after which the Afrikaans-speaking historic-reformed churches will be viewed in terms of the understanding of their calling to ecumenism. The developments and issues in the reformed world will be compared with the latest developments and issues within the Afrikaans-speaking reformed churches. A conclusion based on a comparison between ecumenism in the world and in South Africa will be drawn before some remarks on the future of ecumenical understanding concludes this study.

Metaphysical Creationism and the Paradoxes of Evolutionary Theism: A Contribution to the Discussion within Contemporary Thomism

Metafizyczny kreacjonizm a paradoksy teizmu ewolucyjnego: przyczynek do dyskusji w ramach współczesnego tomizmu
 Autor artykułu dowodzi, że metafizyczny kreacjonizm, z którym spotykamy się w filozofii św. Tomasza z Akwinu, w odróżnieniu od kreacjonizmu amerykańskiego oraz teologiczno-‑biblijnego, jest teorią, która wyrasta z czysto filozoficznego wyjaśnianie początków świata i człowieka. Nie jest zatem ideą biblijną przeniesioną na teren filozofii. Podobnie jak teizm metafizyki Arystotelesa, a także teizm metafizyki św. Tomasza z Akwinu nie jest teizmem religijnym (teologicznym), lecz teizmem czysto filozoficznym (metafizycznym), gdyż wyrasta z metafizycznego wyjaśniania rzeczywistości. Kreacjonizm metafizyczny jest ostatecznym wyjaśnieniem źródła istnienia bytów, które dane są nam w doświadczeniu, jako niekonieczne w istnieniu i zmienne. Natomiast kreacjonizm amerykański, jest interpretacja biologiczno-kosmologiczną biblijnej prawdy o stworzeniu świata w określonym przedziale czasowym (paradygmat 7 dni) i w punkcie wyjścia odwołuje się do danych Objawienia, które chce naukowo potwierdzić
 Artykuł został podzielony na dwie części. W części pierwszej zostały przedstawione węzłowe elementy metafizycznej teorii stworzenia ex nihilo i jej rozumienie. W drugiej zaś części artykułu zostały przywołane elementy teizmu ewolucyjnego, które z punktu metafizycznego kreacjonizmu są źródłem różnych paradoksów, a niekiedy i absurdów oraz domagają się ponownego przemyślenia.

Theistic Evolution: between Creationism and Evolutionism

Theistic Evolution: between Creationism and Evolutionism

The Bible in the Iglesia Filipina Independiente

The Iglesia Filipina Independiente (IFI) has developed its own position regarding the interpretation of the Bible. This article charts the evolution of the IFI’s hermeneutical position throughout the three main phases of its historical and theological development, drawing on official and representative statements made by the church and its leadership. It shows how the development of the biblical hermeneutics of the IFI parallels the historical trajectory of the church at large, from its inception under the leadership of Gregorio Aglipay (and Isabelo de los Reyes Sr.), to the centennial celebration of its proclamation in 2002.

Colonizing Christianity: Greek and Latin Religious Identity in the Era of the Fourth Crusade by George E. Demacopoulos

Reviewed by: Colonizing Christianity: Greek and Latin Religious Identity in the Era of the Fourth Crusade by George E. Demacopoulos Mateusz J. Ferens George E. Demacopoulos, Colonizing Christianity: Greek and Latin Religious Identity in the Era of the Fourth Crusade (New York: Fordham University Press, 2019), 184 pp. George Demacopoulos positions his book as a sort of extended thought experiment in which he applies postcolonial critique to several literary sources written in the wake of the Latin occupation of Constantinople in 1204. While this thought experiment is certainly no tour de force of postcolonial study of the Byzantine world, it provides its readers with a serious foray into the issue of colonialism that will inevitably shape the next stage of discourse in the field. As such, the book functions as a kind of bridge inviting medievalists to engage in postcolonial critique and inviting scholars in the field of postcolonial studies to further investigate the curious case of European colonization of an indigenous Christian population. Colonizing Christianity supports two parallel theses and addresses two distinct audiences. First, it sets out to affirm the increasingly popular claim that European colonialism originated with the establishment of crusader states in the Near East. Demacopoulos is thus contributing to the field of postcolonial studies by bringing attention to the overlooked case of the European colonial enterprise in Greek territories. The thesis is certainly not original, but medievalists will take notice of the epistemic shift that Demacopoulos proposes in his reappraisal of selected texts. The book's second thesis may catch some scholars off guard because it addresses the modern-day Christian audience concerned with the possibility of ecclesial union between the Catholic and Orthodox Churches. Demacopoulos [End Page 248] argues that the long-standing religious polemic between Catholics and Orthodox Christians attained a new postcolonial modality in the aftermath of the Fourth Crusade. This modality was characterized by political and cultural alienation and a lack of theological development. In the final pages of the book, the author encourages his Christian readers with high hopes for Catholic–Orthodox unity on the basis that the historical source of alienation was primarily political, economic, and cultural and that "there was nothing theologically insurmountable about East/West theological difference" (130). In other words, Demacopoulos contributes to today's pro-union efforts of the Catholic and Orthodox Churches by suspending the significance of theological and dogmatic incommensurability. This second thesis should not be disregarded by readers as merely an addendum to the book or a speculative attempt at connecting medieval history to the contemporary moment. On the contrary, it sustains the author's larger objective articulated in his previous publications (George Demacopoulos and Aristotle Papanikolaou, eds., "Orthodox Naming of the Other: A Postcolonial Approach," in Orthodox Constructions of the West [New York: Fordham University Press, 2013], 1–22, and George Demacopoulos, "'Traditional Orthodoxy' as a Postcolonial Movement," The Journal of Religion 97, no. 4 [2017]: 475–99). Indeed, Colonizing Christianity should be read as an extension of the 2017 article in which Demacopoulos attempts to discredit the theological claims of Orthodox "traditionalism" by positing it as a postcolonial, cultural reaction against the Western "other." The author cites both of these previous publications at key moments in his book, strongly suggesting that the true impetus behind Colonizing Christianity lies in the meta-thesis spanning all three publications. The metathesis is predominantly concerned with the contemporary ecclesiological polemic over Christian unity, and the author should be commended for disclosing his pro-union inclinations so openly. That said, the dual trajectory in this book weakens its analytical rigor. The author's argument that the events of 1204 shifted religious thinking away from theological development is based on the weak logic that absence of evidence is evidence of absence. Demacopoulos is considering a very small sample of works from the literati sphere and uses this selection to stand for perspectives at all levels of society. At multiple points in his analysis, he insists that the authors in the selected case studies are not concerned with issues of theology and dogma. Demacopoulos ignores the overwhelming number of scholars and writers during this "postcolonial" period who contributed crucial expositions on these matters, including such eminent figures...

ФИЛОСОФСКИЕ ИСТОКИ ОРГАНИЧЕСКОЙ ТЕОРИИ СПАСЕНИЯ В ПРАВОСЛАВНОМ БОГОСЛОВИИ

The historical study of modern Orthodox theology is a very important process, which is only now finding its place in science. Orthodox dogmatic theology can only seem static, while a closer examination can reveal the processes of decomposition, change and mutation. This article analyzes the theological history of the organic atonement theory, with Vladimir Lossky as its main advocate. The appearance of several atonement theories in theology (along with the criticism of legal theory – a traditional theory peculiar to academic education) highlights the reasons leading to such an unusual state of affairs. In the author’s opinion, this situation is one of the indicators for the changes in theology under the influence of new philosophical trends. The links between the organic atonement theory and philosophical research were noticed as early as in the 20th century. However, the issue has been still insufficiently explored. In connection with this, one of the objectives in this article is a thorough consideration of the way the Russian religious thought participated in the development of the 20th-century Orthodox theology. The largest school of religious philosophy at the beginning of the 20th century was the philosophy of unitotality, which was supported by many famous authors, including theologicians Sergei Bulgakov, Lev Karsavin, Sergei and Evgenii Trubetskoy, Vladimir Ern, Pavel Florensky, et al. The Russian philosopher Vladimir Solovyov was the initiator of this movement. The thinkers mentioned above and the authors of “organic” theology (in particular, Lossky and Georges Florovsky) are linked not only by their biographies, but also by common themes, methodological guidelines and objects of criticism. Thus, one of the key features of the “organic” atonement theory is the idea that Jesus Christ adopted the common human nature, and it exists as real and integrated in every single human hypostasis. In the author’s opinion, this viewpoint is not specific to Russian Orthodox theology before the 20th century. It was indeed inspired by the philosophy contemporary to Lossky. We can find the same ideas in the works by Karsavin and archpriest Bulgakov, whose teachings influenced Lossky’s views. At the same time, Lossky tried to dissociate himself from philosophy and remain a theologician. However, the author undertakes to demonstrate that not all of his resources are in the patristic tradition. In this regard, we cannot speak about imitation. On the contrary, we discuss the unconscious adoption of some topics, images and methodological techniques by Lossky from his opponents and teachers.

Lev Zander and Problems of Ecumenism

Lev Alexandrovich Zander was a continuer of the Russian religious and philosophical renaissance thought of the beginning of the 20th century. The main part of his intellectual activity was performed in the extraordinary conditions of emigration. He was one of the creators of the Russian diaspora in Paris, at the same time holding crucial functions in the St Sergius Orthodox Theology Institute in Paris. However, over the years he became less and less recognisable. His ecumenical, practical, and theoretical activities are also worth analysing. He co-created the Ecumenical Movement in the first years of its existence. His interpretation of ecumenism, highly controversial for his immediate environment, outpaced his times and still remains up-to-date. In his theoretical texts, Zander formulated the fundamental conditions for interfaith collaboration and the postulates of ecumenism: the principle of confessionalism and the need of restraining from proselytism. The principle of confessionalism consists in unconditional and uncompromising affirmation of the beliefs held by each particular church. Lev Zander describer the ideal of ecumenism as “unity in love”, which surpasses its historic standards; the notion of “ecumenism” was more mystical and eschatological than historical. “Unity without union” which is the formula of ecumenical paradox, the expression of the contradictory nature of ecumenism, is placed in the centre of his ecumenical reflection. The publication of Zander’s most important work Vision and action in 1952 sparked a heated discussion in the Paris orthodox community, contributing to the development of the orthodox ecumenical theology.

Рациональная теология в системе Основного богословия митрополита Макария (Булгакова)

The article attempts to critically examine the first textbook on fundamental theology in Russian Academic theological school (lntroduction to Orthodox Theology), written by Metropolitan Macarius (Bulgakov) (1816–1882) who is much more renown for his authoritative volumes on dogmatics and history of the Church and can be regarded as the founder of Russian Academic systematical theology in general. The author of the article is the first one to have scrutinized Macarius’ contribution into rational theology here. He reveals the strengths and weaknesses of the Macarius’ presentation of the rational justifications for the existence of God and the immortality of the soul, which he, like Thomas Aquinas, called the paths of knowledge of God. It is shown that arguments for the existence of God presented by him are mainly complementary, with the exception of the fourth, known in modern rational theology as “Argument from religious experience”. The author discloses that “the first path” of Metropolitan Macarius combines historical and ontological arguments, “the second path” cosmological and teleological, the third one ontological and moral. It is emphasized that among the significant shortcomings of Metropolitan Macarius’ presentation of these arguments are the absence of references to Western authors who formulated the arguments he used, and, most importantly, complete disregard for Kant's criticism of these “proofs”. The truth of the immortality of the soul is also presented, according to the author’s analysis, unconvincingly, although it contains a number of arguments that are productive for rational theology. The author also offers a comprehensive assessment of the system of Orthodox theology of Metropolitan Macarius by his contemporaries, the main complaints of his critics being concerning the dryness and “schooliness” of his style. The conclusion of the article deals with the positive significance of the Introduction as the first experience of building a system of theological knowledge in the aspect of the formation and development of fundamental theology in Russia including fundamental elements of rational theology. The article opens perspectives for the further scrutiny of rational theology within Russian Orthodox Academic tradition to begin with such a renown disciple of Metropolitan Macarius as Nikanor (Brovkovich).

The Image of God in the Theology of Gregory of Nazianzus by Gabrielle Thomas

Reviewed by: The Image of God in the Theology of Gregory of Nazianzus by Gabrielle Thomas Ilaria Vigorelli Gabrielle Thomas The Image of God in the Theology of Gregory of Nazianzus Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019 Pp. 196. $99.99. Gabrielle Thomas’s book is a text that helps us to understand the development of Christian anthropology in the fourth century, especially how it expanded enormously with the development of Trinitarian theology and, with it, the discovery of the relational dynamism present in the beginning and end of creation. No longer was change the central problem of thinking about being, but the divinization of created being: theosis. Being created in the image and likeness of God is the starting point for any biblical anthropology, but the Trinitarian and christological development of the fourth century, mainly due to the Cappadocians, contributed to a definitive differentiation of Christian anthropology from Old Testament and pagan anthropology. Although it remains evident that the theological language is indebted to many forms and images taken from the philosophy of the Mediterranean koiné, this was done by means of an accurate chrêsis, as Christian Gnilka (Chrēsis: Die Methode der Kirchenväter im Umgang mit der antiken Kultur [Basel: Schwabe, 1984]) has demonstrated, in contrast to Harnack’s theses. The author, following the school of Lewis Ayres, recognizes all this, but seems to leave it behind as a debate belonging to the last century, and proposes to take a further step: placing herself already within the horizon of Christian anthropology, she wants to show the historical and eschatological dimension of the eikon theoû (Genesis 1.26–27) in its existential dynamism, in what can rightly be called a human drama: “for Gregory this relates to being and becoming a divine image” (3). In fact, in the reading of Thomas, “rather than simply focusing upon the question, ‘what is human eikon?’ Gregory depicts the human eikon in her day-to-day existence; this involves struggling with the ‘world,’ ‘flesh,’ and the ‘devil’” (154). The book is structured in five chapters, which seem to retrace a tale in three acts: (a) the origins, in which the doctrine of creation “in Christ” is expounded: (1) “Being an Image of God,” (2) “Jesus Christ, the Identical Image”; (b) the development, in which we see how human reality differs from the purely spiritual: (3) “Creation of the Image of God”; (c) the decisive test, thanks to which vulnerability and the eikon’s restoration emerge in sequence: (4) “The Image of God and the Devil,” and finally the overcoming of the conflict in the happy ending: (5) “Theosis and the Divine Image.” [End Page 449] The composition is very well constructed and leads to the most relevant ontological question: What understanding of the image of God did Gregory of Nazianzus develop in the final resolution of the eschatological theosis? In what does the final resolution of the human drama consist? Since, as is demonstrated throughout the text, for Gregory the eikon refers not only to the spiritual soul, but to the whole human person, including the flesh, just as in Christ the flesh makes God visible, so the identical Eikon transforms the flesh as it is assumed by the Word. “Gregory describes Christ as a unified, visible eikon, which sets the stage for the entrance of a visible human eikon. [. . .] This results in human eikones being, quite literally, visible divine eikones who bear the presence of God. This also means that they are dynamic, not static; thus they have the potential for spiritual growth and theosis” (155). What ontological effect on human nature, then, is to be attributed to theosis? After having gone through the texts of the Nazianzen with order and accuracy and having analyzed the state of the different interpretations among contemporary theologians, the author shows that one cannot understand theosis in the texts of the Nazianzen as a metaphor, nor in the light of the Platonic homoiosis expressed by the Theaetetus (176a), but as a reality. She assumes “the ‘divinity’ of the human eikon as ontological, functional, ethical, relational, experiential, since the human eikon participates in, and is created to function like, the identical Eikon, Christ” (156). Thus, ontology...

РЕЛИГИОЗНЫЕ ОСНОВАНИЯ СОВЕТСКОГО БЫТИЯ: АКТУАЛИЗАЦИЯ ПАРАДИГМЫ ИСИХАЗМА В КОНТЕКСТЕ ПОСТРОЕНИЯ КОММУНИЗМА

The article is devoted to the study of the religious foundations of Soviet life. The article examines the religious doctrine of Hesychasm, which was developed in the historical and cultural development of Russia, which influenced the development of Russian theology and the social mission of the Church. Hesychasm ideas have become a civilizational determinant that influenced the development of statehood, the specifics of socio-political practices. The author studies the manifestation and significance of the hesychasm paradigm in order to understand its embodiment in the real practices of the Soviet life. According to the author, hesychasm as a cultural paradigm that has influenced the socio-political sphere should be considered not only in a religious context. The author suggests using the «political hesychasm» and «social hesychasm» concepts existing in the scientific field. Historical and cultural analysis of theevolution of the hesychasm doctrine allows us to conclude that the images of the Soviet life are a transformation of hesychasm ideas that influenced many generations of people and served as the basis for new formats of the messianic idea of building an ideal communist society, in which ideas about holy Russia and holy people, which in turn influenced the nature and methods of government in the Soviet era. The author believes that this issue can be studied in the context of trans – and interdisciplinary methodology, where the main one is a culturological approach to understanding the historical dynamics of social consciousness in the context of civilizational specifics. According to the author, with this approach, it is possible to ensure the interconnection of a holistic vision of the cultural experience of Russia

И.И. Шпальдинг и неология в контексте процесса дисциплинарного оформления философской теологии

The article concerns the formation process of philosophical theology. Today, the emergence of philosophical theology is often ascribed only to the 20th century. It is especially popular in this context to recall Wilhelm Weischedel and his fundamental work Der Gott der Philosophen. The author of the article draws attention to the earlier stages of the formation of this discipline, in particular to the work of Friedrich Schleiermacher and the age of German Enlightenment that preceded him. She comes to conclusion that it is in German Enlightenment, namely in the works of representatives of such a philosophical and theological trend as Neology, that one should see those background that later served as the foundation for the formation of philosophical theology. In this regard, the most interesting are the works of Johann Joachim Spalding (1714–1804). Neology in general and the works of Spalding are scarcely studied at the moment. Most of the available researches on this significant thinker consider his anthropological views based primarily on his fundamental work The Destiny of Man, while his other significant works have sliped out of sight. As a result, our knowledge about the philosophical and theological views of Spalding is one-sided and the importance of this thinker for the subsequent development of theology is greatly underestimated. This article examines Spalding from a new perspective – as a forerunner of the emergence of philosophical theology, and thus contributes to clarifying the essence of philosophical theology as such and the history of its formation, as well as to the study of the philosophy and theology of the age of German Enlightenment.