Development Of Learned Helplessness Research Articles

Learned Helplessness in University Students that Major in Humanities in Russia and the USA: A Comparative Study

The article presents the results of a pilot study conducted as part of the Fulbright Visiting Scholars academic exchange program in 2021–2022. The research objective was to describe the development of learned helplessness in students that majored in humanities in Russia and the USA. The Russian sample was represented by students that followed the Clinical Psychology program at the Krasnoyarsk State Medical University while the American students studied Student Affairs at the University of South Florida. The students fulfilled an open-type Questionnaire on Subjective Assessment of Learned Helplessness, which was designed, translated, and adapted by the author. The research methodology relied on the learned helplessness theory introduced by M. Seligman (USA), the concept of the cultural and historical development of the human psyche by L. Vygotsky (USSR), and the transspective method developed by V. E. Klochko (Russia). The pilot study revealed several socio-cultural peculiarities of learned helplessness. The American students were likely to develop learned helplessness as teenagers whereas the Russian participants manifested it later in adolescence but demonstrated its first signs as early as between senior preschool and primary school. The American students were quite optimistic about the primary and secondary school but associated their early teenage years with a severe life crisis and separation. The Russians saw school as the genesis of learned helplessness while the Americans regarded it as a psychological separation and a change in the child-parent pattern. The author believes that a school system oriented towards approval and support prevents the development of learned helplessness, which is associated with traumatic experience and attachment disorder.

The role of social belonging and exclusion at school and the teacher-student relationship for the development of learned helplessness in adolescents.

Based on learned helplessness theory and conservation of resources theory, the present study explores the role of schools' social environments (i.e., school belonging, school exclusion, and teacher-student relationships) as potential buffers and amplifiers in students' development of learned helplessness during adolescence. We examine whether school belonging, school exclusion, and teacher-student relationship moderate the longitudinal association of learned helplessness differently for students from low-track schools and high-track schools. The study uses a sample of N = 1,088 (Mage = 13.70, SD = 0.53; 54% girls) adolescent students who participated in a two-wave longitudinal study. We conducted latent moderated structural equationmodelling to examine whether school belonging, school exclusion, and teacher-student relationship moderate the longitudinal association of learned helplessness differently for students from low-track schools and high-track schools. The moderation analyses revealed that students from both school tracks are differently affected by school belonging and school exclusion in their development of learned helplessness. Teacher-student relationship did not moderate the association. Our findings underline the important role of the social environment in students' development of learned helplessness. Particularly, the differential effects found for the different educational tracks highlight the necessary awareness of educators to interindividual differences of their students.

(\u2212)-Gallocatechin gallate from green tea rescues cognitive impairment through restoring hippocampal silent synapses in post-menopausal depression

Post-menopausal depression (PMD) is a common psychological disorder accompanied by a cognitive deficit, which is caused by a series of uncontrolled emotional disruptions by strong environmental stressors during menopause. To overcome PMD-induced cognitive deficit, Green tea has been suggested as a dietary supplement because of its ameliorating effect on cognitive dysfunction induced by normal aging or neurodegenerative syndromes; however, its clinical use to improve PMD-accompanied cognitive deficit is still limited due to the controversy for the active ingredients and ambiguous mechanism of its action. Here, we developed modified high-temperature-processed green tea extract (HTP-GTE), which showed lower neuronal toxicity than the conventional green tea extract (GTE). We also demonstrated that HTP-GTE administration prevented the development of learned helplessness (LH) in a rat post-menopausal model. Additionally, HTP-GTE improved LH-induced cognitive impairments simultaneously with rescued the long-term synaptic plasticity. This occurred via the restoration of silent synapse formation by increasing the hippocampal BDNF-tyrosine receptor kinase B pathway in the helpless ovariectomized (OVX) rats. Likewise, we also identified that (−)-gallocatechin gallate was the main contributor of the HTP-GTE effect. Our findings suggested that HTP-GTE has a potential as a preventive nutritional supplement to ameliorate cognitive dysfunctions associated with PMD.

Learned Helplessness, Psychological Wellbeing, and Proenvironment Care Behavior among Victims of Frequent Floods in Kerala

Background In 2018 and 2019, there were floods in the coastal regions of Kerala. Many individuals and families were victims on both these occasions; these floods had devastating impact on individual psychological wellbeing, their financial stability, and on overall family wellbeing. Furthermore, many people in vulnerable geographical areas still live in uncertainty and fear. In this context, our study examined whether continuous victimization of natural calamities, like floods in Kerala, leads to the development of learned helplessness and decreased psychological wellbeing among those affected. We also studied whether proenvironment care behavior increased among flood-affected individuals. Materials and Methods We studied 374 heads of families in Kerala, selected through the Quota sampling method. They belonged to the following three groups: (1) flood-affected only once (OFA, n = 124), (2) flood-affected twice (TFA, n = 124), and (3) never flood-affected (NFA, n = 124) households. The key variables of learned helplessness, psychological wellbeing, and proenvironment care behavior were measured using learned helplessness scale, psychological wellbeing scale, and the environmental behavior scale, respectively. Statistical Analysis The Kruskal–Wallis test was used to analyze the data for independent groups. Results Learned helplessness was found to be high among the TFA group. Psychological wellbeing and proenvironment care behavior were high among the OFA group as compared with the TFA group. The NFA group had higher learned helplessness in comparison to the OFA group, and psychological wellbeing and proenvironment care behavior were low when compared with the TFA group. Conclusion We conclude that surviving a moderate amount of risk is perhaps necessary for better psychological wellbeing and that too many or too few risks in life are detrimental to good psychological health. Immediate psychological support among victims of natural calamities and periodic examination of well-being and psychological interventions among people who are vulnerable for frequent victimization of natural calamities have to part of disaster management related to natural calamities.

Development of Personality with Learned Helplessness at Different Stages of Ontogenesis

Learned helplessness was discovered by American positivists in the 1970s. There are two approaches to learned helplessness: as a phenomenon (state) and as a process. Learned helplessness develops as a result of development deficiency or a severe impairment of one of the spheres of personality, e.g. emotions, motivation, will, or cognition. However, the ability to detect learned helplessness is not sufficient to provide timely and systemic psychological assistance. To determine the potential risk of development and aggravation of this state at different stages of ontogenetic development, i.e. as a process, is the main task of preventive diagnosis and systematic prevention of the state of learned helplessness. The research featured peculiarities of learned helplessness development at different stages of ontogenesis – from senior pre-school to adolescence. The research objective was to identify the markers of learned helplessness. Early detection made it possible to develop a special matrix of personality spheres vulnerability related to structural components of learned helplessness. The article illustrates the system of psychological assistance aimed at urgent (primary and secondary) prevention of the state of learned helplessness in children from senior pre-school age to adolescence.

Wyuczona bezradność jako zmienna pośrednicząca między stylem atrybucyjnym a osiągnięciami akademickimi

Theories and empirical studies link attributional style with many areas of everyday life including academic performance. Attributional style is also a theoretical construct important in explaining the motivation of achievement and development of learned helplessness. The present study was conducted on a sample of 328 undergraduate students. This study examines the relationship between the attributional style and academic performance, taking into account the role of helplessness as mediator and moderating role of gender. The Attributional Style Questionnaire (ASQ; Peterson et al., 1982) was used to measure the attributional style. The anxiety and happiness were used as criterial variables in assessing the relevance of ASQ. The assessment of their psychometric properties allowed to choose the aggregation level with satisfactory reliability (α>0,70) and validity. Attributional style shows a weak (failure β = 0.21; successful β = -0.13) but significant relationship with achievement in science. The introduction of learned helplessness, as an mediating variable revealed a significant effect of suppression (failure β = 0.28; successful β = -0.21), and inclusion of gender as a moderator significantly improves the predictive ability of the models (Δ R2 respectively 12.9% and 24,1% of the variance of average grade). In each regression model the direct effect of the attributional style on average grade shows that the higher optimism in the interpretation of events, the lower the grades.

Repeated treatment with nitric oxide synthase inhibitor attenuates learned helplessness development in rats and increases hippocampal BDNF expression.

Nitric oxide synthase (NOS) inhibitors induce antidepressant-like effects in animal models sensitive to acute drug treatment such as the forced swimming test. However, it is not yet clear if repeated treatment with these drugs is required to induce antidepressant-like effects in preclinical models. The aim of this study was to test the effect induced by acute or repeated (7 days) treatment with 7-nitroindazole (7-NI), a preferential inhibitor of neuronal NOS, in rats submitted to the learned helplessness (LH) model. In addition, we aimed at investigating if 7-NI treatment would increase brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) protein levels in the hippocampus, similarly to the effect of prototype antidepressants. Animals were submitted to a pre-test (PT) session with inescapable footshocks or habituation (no shocks) to the experimental shuttle box. Six days later they were exposed to a test with escapable footshocks. Independent groups received acute (a single injection after PT or before test) or repeated (once a day for 7 days) treatment with vehicle or 7-NI (30 mg/kg). Repeated, but not acute, treatment with 7-NI attenuated LH development. The effect was similar to repeated imipramine treatment. Moreover, in an independent experimental group, only repeated treatment with 7-NI and imipramine increased BDNF protein levels in the hippocampus. The results suggest the nitrergic system could be a target for the treatment of depressive-like conditions. They also indicate that, similar to the positive control imipramine, the antidepressant-like effects of NOS inhibition could involve an increase in hippocampal BDNF levels.

The role of war trauma survivors in managing their own mental conditions, Syria civil war as an example.

War trauma leads to a wide range of psychological consequences and disorders that can be quite disabling to individuals and their families. At times of war, existing resources become strained to cope with all demands of trauma sufferers. The survivors’ role of managing their own mental conditions becomes highly important and relevant as a way of reducing the resulted suffering. Unfortunately, this role is often ignored or trivialized by all concerned. The self-efficacy and resilience of people are the factors not to be underestimated and should be built upon. Reaching solutions are generally more satisfying and long-lasting when the affected person has taken a positive active part in finding them. Encouraging the use of own resources and experiences and using own problem-solving skills can be all that is needed for survivors to feel enabled. Engaging survivors and focusing on promoting recovery and social inclusion along with the use of self-help skills make them feel more positive about their own conditions. Being more involved, taking even small steps reduces the development of learned helplessness and reduces the psychiatric morbidities.

Mood Disorder Susceptibility Gene CACNA1C Modifies Mood-Related Behaviors in Mice and Interacts with Sex to Influence Behavior in Mice and Diagnosis in Humans

Recent genome-wide association studies have associated polymorphisms in the gene CACNA1C, which codes for Ca(v)1.2, with a bipolar disorder and depression diagnosis. The behaviors of wild-type and Cacna1c heterozygous mice of both sexes were evaluated in a number of tests. Based upon sex differences in our mouse data, we assessed a gene × sex interaction for diagnosis of mood disorders in human subjects. Data from the National Institute of Mental Health Genetics Initiative Bipolar Disorder Consortium and the Genetics of Recurrent Early-Onset Major Depression Consortium were examined using a combined dataset that included 2021 mood disorder cases (1223 female cases) and 1840 control subjects (837 female subjects). In both male and female mice, Cacna1c haploinsufficiency was associated with lower exploratory behavior, decreased response to amphetamine, and antidepressant-like behavior in the forced swim and tail suspension tests. Female, but not male, heterozygous mice displayed decreased risk-taking behavior or increased anxiety in multiple tests, greater attenuation of amphetamine-induced hyperlocomotion, decreased development of learned helplessness, and a decreased acoustic startle response, indicating a sex-specific role of Cacna1c. In humans, sex-specific genetic association was seen for two intronic single nucleotide polymorphisms, rs2370419 and rs2470411, in CACNA1C, with effects in female subjects (odds ratio = 1.64, 1.32) but not in male subjects (odds ratio = .82, .86). The interactions by sex were significant after correction for testing 190 single nucleotide polymorphisms (p = 1.4 × 10⁻⁴, 2.1 × 10⁻⁴; p(corrected) = .03, .04) and were consistent across two large datasets. Our preclinical results support a role for CACNA1C in mood disorder pathophysiology, and the combination of human genetic and preclinical data support an interaction between sex and genotype.

Studies of long-term noopept and afobazol treatment in rats with learned helplessness neurosis

Long-lasting effects of new Russian psychotropic drugs Noopept and Afobazol on active avoidance conditioning and formation of learned helplessness neurosis were studied on an original experimental model in rats. Noopept eliminated the manifestations of learned helplessness after long-term (21-day) treatment by increasing the percent of trained animals. Afobazol was low effective in preventing manifestations of learned helplessness, but if used for a long time, it reduced the incidence of learned helplessness development by increasing the percent of untrained animals.

Post-stress facilitation of serotonergic, but not noradrenergic, neurotransmission in the dorsal hippocampus prevents learned helplessness development in rats

Recent pieces of evidence suggest that the dorsal hippocampus may mediate adaptation to severe and inescapable stress, possibly by the facilitation of serotonergic and/or noradrenergic neurotransmission. Chronic social stress and high corticosteroid levels would impair this coping mechanism, predisposing animals to learned helplessness. To test the hypothesis that increasing serotonin or noradrenaline levels in the dorsal hippocampus would attenuate the development of learned helplessness (LH), rats received inescapable foot shock (IS) and were tested in a shuttle box 24 h latter. Prestressed animals showed impairment of escape responses. This effect was prevented by bilateral intrahippocampal injections of zimelidine (100 nmol/0.5 μl), a serotonin reuptake blocker, immediately after IS. This effect was not observed when zimelidine was administered before or 2 h after IS. Bilateral intrahippocampal injections of desipramine (3 or 30 nmol/0.5 μl), a noradrenaline reuptake blocker, before IS or immediately after it did not prevent LH development. Desipramine (30 nmol) enhanced LH development when injected before IS. These data suggest that poststress facilitation of hippocampal serotonergic, but not noradrenergic, neurotransmission in the dorsal hippocampus facilitates adaptation to severe inescapable stress. Antidepressant effects of noradrenaline-selective drugs seem to depend on other structures than the dorsal hippocampus.

Role of the dopamine receptors in the development of learned helplessness

Role of the dopamine receptors in the development of learned helplessness

Reduced cell proliferation in the dentate gyrusis not correlated with the development of learned helplessness

Background A plethora of indirect findings suggests that mood disorders may be caused by or result in structural changes in the brain, namely decreased hippocampal cell proliferation. Methods To test for these hypotheses, we used a rat model of depression, learned helplessness. Moderate unpredictable and inescapable foot shocks induced learned helplessness only in a portion of the rats. Rats that showed helpless behavior were compared to those behaving normally after inescapable shock. Proliferating cells in the dentate gyrus were labeled with BrdU (bromodeoxyuridine). Results Helpless behavior appeared before the decrease of dentate gyrus cell proliferation was maximal. Cell proliferation was decreased to the same extent in animals that developed helplessness as those that were not helpless. Furthermore, immobilization stress, which reduced the rate of cell proliferation, did not induce learned helplessness. Conclusion These results are in line with reports that the rate of dentate gyrus cell proliferation is acutely down-regulated by stress, but the development of helpless behavior does not correlate with this process. Further studies will have to clarify if during learned helpless behavior neurogenesis is impaired by altered differentiation or survival of cells.

Activation of post-synaptic 5-HT 1A receptors in the dorsal hippocampus prevents learned helplessness development

Activation of post-synaptic 5-HT 1A receptors in the dorsal hippocampus is proposed to mediate stress adaptation. Chronic social stress and high corticosteroid levels would impair this coping mechanism, predisposing animals to learned helplessness. To test the hypothesis that increasing serotonin levels in the dorsal hippocampus would attenuate the development of learned helplessness, rats received inescapable foot-shock (pre-test session) and were tested in a shuttle box 24-h later. Pre-stressed animals showed impairment of escape responses. This effect was prevented by chronic (21 days) treatment with imipramine (15 mg/kg). Similar results were obtained when the animals received bilateral intra-hippocampal injections, immediately after pre-test, of zimelidine (100 nmol/0.5 μl), a serotonin reuptake blocker, or 8-OH-DPAT (10 nmol), a 5-HT 1A receptor agonist. The zimelidine effect was prevented by pre-treatment with WAY-100635 (30 nmol), a 5-HT 1A receptor antagonist. These data suggest that facilitation of serotonergic neurotransmission in the dorsal hippocampus mediates adaptation to severe inescapable stress, probably through the activation of post-synaptic 5-HT 1A receptors.

Today's Children, Tomorrow's Leaders: Are We Neglecting the Agents of Change?

There is an abundant body of knowledge suggesting that early experience influences later human behavior. Based on the literature, this article suggests that human development at the individual level has far-reaching consequences for the social, economic, and political development of a people. For instance, education, one measure of human development, has been inaccessible to more than 50 percent of school age children in Ethiopia. To effect fundamental change in Ethiopia, attention and resources must be dedicated to children's well-being and potential. The article also discusses the role that current environmental conditions may play in the development of learned helplessness in Ethiopian children. Because of the country's limited resources, nonformal education that taps traditional Ethiopian resources for fostering children's development is proposed.

249. The effects of gender and the estrous cycle on learned helplessness in the rat

Women are more likely to suffer from major depressive disorder than men. Moreover, in depressed women, mood often fluctuates during the menstrual cycle. Learned helplessness is a valid animal model of stress-induced behavioral depression. Few studies have examined gender differences and influences of the estrous cycle in this and other animal behavioral models of clinical depression. We therefore tested the hypothesis that estrogen protects against depression. Learned helplessness was studied in rats using a inescapable tail shock stress followed by a shuttle box test to determine escape latencies. Rats studied were normal cycling female rats in the estrus and diestrus II phases, male and ovariectomized female rats. β-estradiol (10 μg/ml, sc) and progesterone (0.5 mg/kg) were administered to OVX females 12 or 72 hours prior to inescapable tail shock. Diazepam (2 mg/kg) and allopregnanolone (0.5 mg/kg) were administered to diestrus II females thirty minutes prior to inescapable tail shock. Pentylenetetrazole (20 mg/kg, PTZ) was administered to estrus females 10 minutes prior to shuttle box testing. Female rats in the diestrus II phase were significantly more helpless than female rats in the estrus phase. Estradiol decreased the escape latencies of OVX females. Progesterone produced a time-dependent effect such that after 12 hours escape latencies were increased but after 72 hours escape latencies were decreased. Diazepam and allopregnanolone prevented learned helplessness in diestrus II females. PTZ induced learned helplessness in estrus females. These results indicate an influence of the estrous cycle on the development of learned helplessness.

Blood corticosterone and resistance to hypoxia during operant conditioning and development of learned helplessness

Operant conditioning under conditions of uncertain behavioral environment was accompanied by a significant elevation of blood corticosterone, high exploratory activity, and increased resistance to hypoxia. The blood content of corticosterone and exploratory activity significantly decreased in rats developing learned helplessness, but their resistance to hypoxia increased in comparison with that during learning.

Agonistic behavior during stress prevents the development of learned helplessness in rats.

Male Wistar rats were subjected to unavoidable electrical pain stimulation either in individual cages or in pairs. During the procedure, rats stressed in pairs fought. After 48 h, rats were tested in a shuttle box for the ability to develop active avoidance responses. The proportion of escape and avoidance responses was significantly lower in rats stressed individually as compared with intact animals and animals stressed in pairs. Plasma corticosterone was assayed one day later, at rest and after dexamethasone administration. There were no significant differences in resting corticosterone level between groups of animals. Administration of dexamethasone significantly reduced the plasma corticosterone level in intact rats and in animals stressed in pairs, but not in rats stressed individually. Thus, agonistic behavior during unavoidable stress prevents the development of pathological changes in adaptive behavior and the endocrine system.

In vivo Serotonin release and learned helplessness

Learned helplessness, a behavioral depression caused by exposure to inescapable stress, is considered to be an animal model of human depressive disorder. Like human depression, learned helplessness has been associated with a defect in serotonergic function, but the nature of this relationship is not entirely clear. We have used in vivo microdialysis brain perfusion to measure serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5HT) in extracellular space of medial frontal cortex in conscious, freely moving rats. Basal 5HT levels in rats perfused before exposure to tail-shock stress did not themselves correlate with subsequent learned helplessness behavior. However, 5HT release after stress showed a significant increase with helpless behavior. These data support the hypothesis that a cortical serotonergic excess is causally related to the development of learned helplessness.

Learned Helplessness and Superstitious Behavior as Opposite Effects of Uncontrollable Reinforcement in Humans

Learned helplessness and superstition accounts of uncontrollability predict opposite results for subjects exposed to noncontingent reinforcement. Experiment 1 used the instrumental-cognitive triadic design proposed by Hiroto and Seligman (1975) for the testing of learned helplessness in humans, but eliminated the "failure light" that they introduced in their procedure. Results showed that Yoked subjects tend to superstitious behavior and illusion of control during exposure to uncontrollable noise. This, in turn, prevents the development of learned helplessness because uncontrollability is not perceived. In Experiment 2, the failure feedback manipulation was added to the Yoked condition. Results of this experiment replicate previous findings of a proactive interference effect in humans—often characterized as learned helplessness. This effect, however, does not support learned helplessness theory because failure feedback is needed for its development. It is argued that conditions of response-independent reinforcement commonly used in human research do not lead to learned helplessness, but to superstitious behavior and illusion of control. Different conditions could lead to learned helplessness, but the limits between superstition and helplessness have not yet been investigated.