Development Of Individual Creativity Research Articles

Effects of Adverse Childhood Experiences on Creativity from Life History Theory

ABSTRACTFrom the perspective of survival adaption, adverse childhood experiences may promote creativity, and this effect would be enhanced by external threat. This study adopted three approaches to explore the impact of childhood harshness and unpredictability on creativity. By using a historiometric approach to investigate the adverse childhood experiences among eminent psychologists in 20tth century, Study 1 found that the proportion experiencing childhood adversity was significantly higher than the proportion who did not, especially in the group experiencing an external threat. Study 2 measured college students' early childhood experiences and creative thinking in a threatening circumstance (COVID‐19 pandemic), which showed that childhood harshness was significantly correlated with the originality of creative thinking. Study 3 explored the moderating role of threat through experimental manipulation. Results showed that childhood harshness predicted originality only in the threatening condition but not in the control condition. These results have theoretical significance for understanding individual creative development.

THE EDUCATIONAL ENVIRONMENT AS A FACTOR IN OPTIMIZING THE TRAINING OF A CREATIVE TEACHER IN A HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTION

THE EDUCATIONAL ENVIRONMENT AS A FACTOR IN OPTIMIZING THE TRAINING OF A CREATIVE TEACHER IN A HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTION

Fit-For-Purpose Creativity Assessment: Automatic Scoring of the Test of Creative Thinking – Drawing Production (TCT-DP)

ABSTRACT Creativity is now universally recognized as an essential, 21st century competency. However, there are many practical barriers to the development of creativity in schools, universities and workplaces. Chief among these is a problem of the fitness-for-purpose of creativity assessments. Highly valid and reliable creativity tests, necessary to support the development of individual creativity, are typically slow and labor-intensive to administer and score. However, recent advances in machine learning are opening up solutions to the fitness-for-purpose problem, across a range of different modes (e.g. verbal and figural) of testing. This paper describes the development of an open-source, large, image-based, multi-label classification model capable of automatically scoring the figural Test of Creative Thinking – Drawing Production (TCT-DP) with accuracies comparable to those of typical human raters. The growth of this, and similar machine learning models, promises to transform the development of creativity in education, offering rapid, accurate and cost-effective assessments that can be seamlessly integrated into teaching and learning.

Education of the Health Culture for Future Teacher's Personality

The purpose of the article is to substantiate the process of educating the health culture of a future teacher.
 Methodology. Among the theoretical research methods, the main ones were: conceptual and comparative analysis (study of pedagogical, philosophical and psychological literature, textbooks on the research topic); structural-system analysis (theoretical analysis of problems, modeling of the studied systems, comparative, comparative and retrospective analyzes, diagnostics and forecasting of initial approaches and research consequences).
 Results. The research model helps to improve the process of educating a future teacher's personality in terms of creating a health-preserving environment of higher education, is able apply to creatively acquired health-preserving knowledge, skills and abilities in practice as well as to find, process, analyze, use information independently, think nonlinearly, use modern content in future teacher's activities, methods of education, technologies, pedagogical techniques, acquire the necessary personal qualities, self-change and strive for continuous self-improvement.
 Conclusions. The education of a health culture for a future teacher’s personality is a purposeful, structures and managed system of ideas and principles, indicators, levels, criteria, guidelines and recommendations, as well as certain organizational and pedagogical conditions and tools, united by a single concept; it is aimed at individual creative development of a future specialist's personality in the structure of multilevel pedagogical education.

Childhood Maltreatment and Creativity among Chinese College Students: A Serial Mediation Model

Creativity plays a very crucial impact on our cultural life and has also been important to the improvement of human civilization. Numerous studies have indicated that family circumstance plays an important role in the development of individual creativity. However, little is known about the mediating mechanisms underlying the association between childhood maltreatment and creativity. This study intended to explore the serial multiple mediation model in which undergraduates' cognitive flexibility and self-efficacy were proposed to mediate the potential influence of childhood maltreatment on their creativity. Participants were 1069 undergraduates (573 males and 496 females, mean age was 20.57 ± 1.24 years ranging from 17 to 24) from a university in Shandong Province, China. Participants were required to complete an internet survey including the Short Form of Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ-SF), General Self-Efficacy Scale (GSES), Cognitive Flexibility Inventory (CFI), and Williams Creativity Aptitude Test (WCAT). Serial multiple mediation analysis and the bootstrap method were used to investigate the mediation effects of cognitive flexibility and self-efficacy. The results showed that childhood maltreatment indirectly influenced undergraduates' creativity through three indirect paths: childhood maltreatment→cognitive flexibility→creativity, childhood maltreatment→self-efficacy→creativity, and childhood maltreatment→cognitive flexibility→self-efficacy→creativity. The ratios of the total indirect effects and branch-indirect effects to the total effects were 92.73%, 34.61%, 35.68%, and 22.44%, respectively. These results indicated that cognitive flexibility and self-efficacy could completely mediate the potential impact of childhood maltreatment on individuals creativity.

Academic integrity as a component of the academic culture of participants in the educational and scientific process

The article substantiates that the topic of academic integrity has gained increased relevance in the educational and scientific environment in the XXI century. Usually when any phenomenon is so actively discussed in the society we have not only superficial and visible to everyone reasons, but deep and latent ones hidden from the average eye. Plagiarism is an obvious superficial problem and deep problems include the fact that the causes that lead to such a phenomenon are difficult to eradicate, they lie in culture, values, habits, and traditions. In modern conditions the educational process reaches a new quality level determined by the features of the information society. New communications between subjects, a new style of management of educational institutions, new technologies for improving the quality of education, including the formation of academic integrity culture must be formed. The era of knowledge transmission is a thing of the past. Education today aims to create for the realization of the potential of each person, to contribute to the constant process of improvement and self-education, and the development of individual creativity. The phenomenon of creativity is based on developed thinking, imagination, intuition, the results of which are embodied in various practices. It is thanks that The formation of competences is possible due to the development of creative abilities, which allow individuals to interact with the modern world constructively and responsibly and to produce their own new product. It has been proven that the problem of academic integrity will not be of such an urgent nature if the creativity of young people is developed, since the applicants will not aim to compile the material, borrow it and engage in academic fraud. The formation of academic integrity as a component of academic culture should be implemented comprehensively at several levels (civilizational, national, institutional, individual) and this process should be planned and systematic

СИМВОЛЬНА МОВА КОЛЬОРІВ ПЕРВІСНОЇ ГАРМОНІЇ В ЖИВОПИСІ КИЇВСЬКИХ МИТЦІВ КІНЦЯ ХХ – ПОЧАТКУ XXI СТОЛІТТЯ

The article focuses on the symbolic language of basic colours – white, black and gray; preconditions for the formation of the hierarchical structure of the colours of archetypal harmony, their impact on the modern language of painting. The definition of the symbolic language of colour is due to the understanding of its role in art and culture, the manifestation of its genesis through – spiritual or everyday. Based on the important role of sacred content in determining the hierarchy of colours, the symbolic meaning of white, black, and gray is clarified on the example of the works of Kyiv artists – I. Pylypenko, A. Kryvolap, V. Gurin, and others. In the balance of these colours, gray symbolizes the beginning and the end, inspiring artists to philosophical search. The development of individual creativity is often shaped by artistic trends, which in turn reveal the role of colour in relation to culture, and because of assimilation of works to the cultural trend from which the artist draws inspiration. Contemporary art is an environment of mixing modern and archaic cultures, for which the scale of sacred colours is more subject to the individual preferences of the author or audience than traditional principles. The connection with ancestors for the Ukrainian people is not an abstract concept, its power is passed down through generations, and despite the prevalence of the world spiritual, the former retains a sacred tone, which in turn is reflected in colour. The symbol plays a joining link between people and art, faith and religion, nature, and science, finding ways to connect each of these bases in the harmonious unity of culture. The issue of colour semantics in the modern context, namely communication with the audience, is becoming one of the main, which requires constant research in the field of public relations, the art of which is becoming increasingly relevant.

CREATIVE INDIVIDUALITY OF THE PUPILS OF OUT-OF-SCHOOL EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS OF ARTISTIC-AESTHETIC DIRECTION: ESSENCE AND STRUCTURE

The article reveals the essence and structure of creative individuality of the pupils of the out-of-school education institutions of artistic-aesthetic direction. Formation of the specified phenomenon is considered through the prism of motivational, cognitive, perceptual and interactive components and the following clusters of the pupil’s competences: value-motivational, cognitive-potential, creative-emotional, reflexive-activity. Value-motivational cluster characterizes the level of pupil’s motivation. It is determined by awareness of the importance of the creative component of artistic-aesthetic activity, understanding the need for creative self-development, efforts to improve one’s creative potential, interest in various disciplines of art education. Cognitive-potential cluster is manifested as a developed artistic-aesthetic thesaurus, variability of creative individuality in different types of artistic-aesthetic activities, the direction of creative self-development. Creative-emotional cluster covers such qualities of the personality of the pupil of the out-of-school education institution as initiative, independence, risk-taking, emotionality, etc. With the help of reflexive-activity cluster can be measured the ability to reflections in the creative process, the ability to manage one’s mental state, overcoming internal and external obstacles, purposefulness and criticism in performing creative tasks. It is argued that creative individuality of the pupil of the out-of-school education institution is a complex and multi-aspect quality, which is formed in a multi-vector educational process, which focuses on individual creative development of pupils, and effectiveness of this process depends on providing a number of pedagogical conditions, in particular: development and application in the process of teaching the pupils of the out-of-school education institutions visual or decorative-applied arts of creative technologies of creative individuality formation; motivation for creative activity with a focus on opportunities for creative self-expression; providing an aesthetic and developmental environment in terms of art education; introduction of various forms of individual creative work.

Interpretácia textov Ivana Štrpku v troch albumoch Deža Ursinyho

Ivan Štrpka is one of the most important Slovak poets of the second half of 20th century. This presented study analyses a fragment of his individual creative development. It is based on the interpretation of selected texts from the first three albums, which came from Štrpka’s long-term cooperation with Slovak art-rock composer Dežo Ursiny. The study reflects on their individual development as well as the process of searching for their common voice. First precondition of the interpretation is a definition of basic theoretical terms and setting the overall methodology of the study. This makes the main objective of the study’s theoretical part. The actual interpretation focuses on selected texts from albums Childhood s Mainland (1978), New Maps of Silence (1979) and Blue Hill (1981). It is expected that the process of searching for their common voice will be most obvious in these early phases of their cooperation. The chosen texts also seem to be most significant study materials for the individual albums. The main objective of the study is to identify intertextual relations between analysed texts, comment on the mutual development of Ivan Štrpka and Dežo Ursiny and emphasize the historical significance and uniqueness of their creative work in Slovak mainstream and independent musical scene.

ТРАНСФОРМАЦІЯ ФОРМ І МЕТОДІВ НАВЧАННЯ У ЗАКЛАДАХ ВИЩОЇ ОСВІТИ: СУЧАСНИЙ ВИМІР

Modern higher pedagogical science in recent decades is characterized by the search for new and transformation of traditional forms and methods of teaching that will improve the quality of training of specialists in various specialties. One of the directions of this process is the introduction of distance learning in the system of higher education. Native and foreign scientists (N. Andrusenko, S. Vodolad, M. Zaikovska, T. Kovalova, H. Savieliev and others) note the peculiarities of distance education, which is characterized as an individualized process of acquiring knowledge, skills, abilities and methods of cognitive activity of future professionals, which occurs due to the indirect interaction of distant subjects of the educational process in a specially organized educational environment. First of all, it is emphasized that this process is based on the use of innovative computer technologies. Distance learning is one of the forms of professional training of specialists alongside and in unity with traditional forms of education (daytime education, evening classes, distance education). However, this form of education has specific features: it is characterized by significant flexibility, profitability, social orientation, parallelism, modularity, independence, creativity etc. According to the content, purpose and forms of organization of the educational process, in the context of distance learning, the authors used various tools and methods of On-line communication, which allowed students to learn the necessary educational information and gain practical experience by working with Internet resources. The obtained results of work in the distance learning mode indicate that students worked out and accumulated cognitive information on media: case, teka, portfolio, lapbook and so on. It was these tools that enabled the teacher to provide timely feedback to students andsystematically receive information about their learning activities. This allowed for timely monitoring and objective evaluation of the achievements of future professionals. During the work we observed that the increase of informativeness, the development of individual creativity make certain adjustments to the system of distance learning, due to the requirements of the scientific and technical process. But it should be noted that distance learning involves increasing the volume and increasing requirements for the quality of independent work of students. This requires a reorientation of teachers in the organization of independent cognitive activity of higher education students. An important place in this process is the conduct of individual, group and collectiveconsultations, which ensure the organization of direct interaction between students and teachers. The conclusions from our experience coincide with the opinions of many scientists and educators-practitioners (O. Vasiuk, Yu. Didyk, O. Lvovych, Yu. Moskal, O. Ovcharuk and others), who highlight their achievements in organizing the educational process in the distance education mode.

Perbedaan Kreativitas Remaja Ditinjau dari Peran Seks Androgini dan Non-Androgini

<em><span>The study aims to determine the difference in adolescents ' creativity is reviewed from the role of androgynous and non-androgynous sex. This research uses quantitative methods. The research Data is obtained from sex role scale (BSRI) and Figural test of type B sub Test 3 (circle). The sample in this research is the students of XI SMA Negeri 4 </span><span lang="EN-ID">Sungai Penuh</span><span>. The number of samples in this study was 84 people. The results showed that there was no difference between the creativity of teenagers who had androgynous sex roles and teenagers who had non-androgynous sex roles (P = 0646, p > 0.05). From the results of this study can be concluded that in addition to the sex role factors, psychological safety factor and psychological Freedom factor also determines the development of individual creativity.</span></em>

Наталія Жидкова КРИТИЧНЕ МИСЛЕННЯ У РОЗВИТКУ ТВОРЧОСТІ УЧНІВ НА УРОКАХ СУСПІЛЬСТВОЗНАВЧИХ ПРЕДМЕТІВ

The article analyzes the development of students` creativity in social science studying. We consider the points of contact between critical and creative thinking in the development of students` creativity, which are different in content and functionality in cognitive educational process, but they are the complement of one another. The author`s approach to teaching social studies is based on the use of an integral model in the development of creativity by using both creative and critical thinking in doing tasks. Creative thinking is based on causing of a new cognitive product, while critical one is based on making a high–quality cognitive product and testing it for feasibility. The solving cognitive problem stages include understanding of a problem, creation, correction and implementation of a hypothesis, idea or a new way of solving. At the beginning they require primarily individual creative thinking methods and then working in a group. Identification of contradictions, known and unknown, analyzing the situation, pulling out hypothesis, verification of cognitive product efficiency require critical thinking mainly in group. Using mental operations complex, exercising, development of imagination in solving problem and cognitive tasks, changing problems specifications, using teaching methods, co-ordination individual and group work facilitate individual creative development.

Enhancing Creativity and Managing Perfectionism in Dancers Through Implicit Learning and Sensori-Kinetic Imagery

ABSTRACTBallet training is designed to develop creative, expressive artists. However, an explicit approach to technical instruction may not assist in the development of individual creativity and may encourage counterproductive perfectionistic goals. This paper describes a five-day intervention designed to enhance creativity in thirteen adolescent vocational ballet students at an elite ballet school in Stockholm, Sweden. The intervention focused on implicit learning and sensori-kinetic imagery. Wilcoxon Signed Rank Tests indicated significant increases for creativity perceptions and implicit sources of evaluation, and reductions in perfectionistic cognitions. Case study interviewees, representing the most and least perfectionistic students, reported heightened creativity, enjoyment and, in some cases, a strengthened sense of autonomy and self-regulation. The combination of quantitative and qualitative data forms a convincing case that even a short intervention based on implicit learning strategies and sensori-kinetic imagery can enhance perceptions of creativity and reduce perfectionistic cognitions in ballet class.

Construcción social de la imagen de una ciudad a través de Instagram: el caso de Granada

Our digital world is increasingly visual. Mobile applications focused on digital photography such as Instagram are vehicles for the creation, manipulation and instant diffusion of images. Instagram is therefore an open window to research in Social Sciences and Digital Humanities, and an opportunity to investigate how young users of this application develop visual culture in their local environments through global visual languages. The present work analyzes the production of Instagram in Granada from a sample of 955.564 publications and 375.758 images published and geolocated over a year (between April 2017 and April 2018), with the aim of showing how the image of a city is socially constructed. The geographical, social network, and content analysis of the study sample has allowed to establish which are the main focal points of visual attraction of the city, as well as the most active neighborhoods and districts; the most relevant members of a user network that is self-constructed in a heterogeneous and open manner, with strong intermediary nodes of an “instagramist” style that connect subcommunities; as well as the widespread use of the application both for business promotion and for the development of individual creativity. All this indicates how the Instagram publications in Granada make visible the importance and incidence of tourism in the city.

Individualization of Training Using the Resources of International Digital Platforms

The article is devoted to the definition of psychological and pedagogical conditions and design methods of formation of a creatively thinking specialist using international digital platforms. The following universal abilities making up a specialist's competitiveness are defined: creativity, digital literacy, and psychological stability. The importance of tolerance for international innovation is shown. The state and directions of development of education digitalization are analyzed. Psychological and pedagogical conditions are revealed, and provisions of the concept of training individualization are defined. A set of measures are considered to facilitate the passage of students personal educational trajectory. The experience of organizing individual creative development in the digital space of the Union state is described. The introduction of the developed theoretical and methodological conceptual provisions of training individualization will provide conditions for improving the quality of vocational education and training for the implementation of innovative programs in the framework of international cooperation.

Vietnamese Family Culture in the Context of International Integration

Family is the living cell of society, so culture plays an important role in preserving and promoting traditional cultural identity of the nation. Vietnamese culture is formed through thousands of years of history and maintained family for a long tradition. Family lifestyle is the basis of the traditional Vietnamese culture and is understood to be the private habits, customs and education and rules in the family. The core of the lifestyle always strives for the spirit of the original source and encourages filial piety, caring for parents, worshiping ancestors, respecting family, faithfulness, gratitude, filial piety in behavior, etc. The Vietnamese culture now includes many good traditional elements and new elements of the time such as democratic relations, equality between members, respect for personal freedom, encouraging the development of individual creativity, etc. Vietnamese culture is rich in humanity, humaneness, appreciates ethical values, builds a culture of order, discipline and trains the human soul and nature. The exchange and integration with cultures in the world has brought many opportunities for Vietnamese families, but also influenced the lifestyle in Vietnam.

Sociocultural Approach toward Creativity: When Vygotsky Considers Mediating ‘C’ Creativity

인간은 사회문화적인 동물로서 다른 사람과의 상호작용의 과정을 제외하고는 인간의 발달에 대해서 온전히 이해하기 어렵다. 이것은 단순한 일반적인 진리로 보이지만 배움과 가르침의 학교 환경에서는 상당한 교육적 함의를 가지고 있다. 이는 창의력 교육 분야에서도 예외는 아닌데 본 논문은 비고스키의 사회문화적 이론을 기반으로 개인의 창의력의 발달 과정이 어떻게 이해되어야 하는지, 또한 교실 안에서 어떻게 학습되고 장려되어야 하는지에 대해서 심도 깊은 고찰을 한다. 이를 위해 본 논문은 첫째, 기존의 창의성에 대한 실험실 위주의 연구 들이 창의력을 개인적인 특징과 결과물로만 인식하는 것에 따른 한계점들에 대해 언급하고 둘째, 비고스키의 사회문화적 이론을 바탕으로 창의력에 대한 이해와 발달이 협력을 기반으로한 과정 중심의 사회문화적인 상호작용으로 이해되어야 하는 근거에 대해서 설명한다. 셋째, 비고스키의 사회문화적 이론 중 가장 대표적인 근접발달지대에 대한 여러 학자들의 의견을 바탕으로 창의력을 강화시키기 위해 어떠한 모방, 비계, 협력의 단계가 있어야 하는지에 대해서 연구한다. 이를 바탕으로 본 논문은 기존의 창의력에 대한 큰 “C”와 작은 “c”의 구조에서 벗어나 비고스키가 어떠한 방식으로 창의성의 잠재력을 설명했는지를 중재하는 ‘C’라는 새로운 용어로 접근하여 교육현장에서 창의적인 과정 중심의 학습과 놀이가 장려되어 질수 있는 방안에 대해 함께 제시한다.As a human creature, we are living in the world as a sociocultural being. This is a simple truth, but it offers a deep and profound proposition when it comes to learning, teaching, and schooling. Through the lens of Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory, which spotlights the importance of social interaction and cultural intervention in individual development and learning, this paper sheds new light on the sociocultural understanding of creativity development. Specifically, in a move away from a dichotomous understanding of creativity in terms of Little ‘c’ and Big ‘C,’ this paper adopts an idea of Mediating ‘C’ which falls in-between laid out by the individual creative development and its relation to sociocultural and cooperative learning and intervention. This approach sharply contrasts with the traditional view of creativity as an individual trait and a final product. In order to accomplish this, this paper firstly fills in the research gap with the current literature in studies and theories of creativity from a Vygotskian perspective on creative processes. Especially, it focuses on how the creative development is mediated and facilitated in the sequence of imitative, instructed, and collaborative learning, which results in one of the most important Vygotskain themes: the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). Furthermore, as the focus of the sociocultural theory is often associated with children’s practices as a form of play, the discussion of the pedagogical implications will be also situated on the importance of playful instruction and collaboration that help develop learners’ mediating ‘C’ creativity.

Modeling educational process optimization in the development of individual creativity by extending modality skills of the learners

In the paper, model for time optimization of educational process for the purposes of creativity enhancement in the course of learning by students of educational subjects is considered. Creativity enhancement is supposed to be achieved by means of expansion of trainee psycho physiological base, that is, by means of the maximum variety of educational signals modality. The optimization problem is solved in general by creation of the model based on information states and according to the principles of forms synergy for information support of educational process and optimum time balance minimum necessary for significant increase of trainee creativity. The solution of optimization problem makes it possible to estimate a variety of educational signals modality for educational and methodical guidelines, their completeness within the educational module, to find variants of time budget for various pedagogic forms and methods for application in educational process.

The moderating role of social media usage in the relationship among multicultural experiences, cultural intelligence, and individual creativity

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to explore the moderating role of social media usage in the relationship among multicultural experiences, cultural intelligence, and creativity.Design/methodology/approachThis study conducted a questionnaire survey in three public universities in China and obtained 310 useful responses from international students.FindingsThe authors categorized social media usage into informational and socializing usage. Findings show that socializing social media usage strengthens the relationship between multicultural experiences and cultural intelligence, whereas informational social media usage does not strengthen such relationship.Research limitations/implicationsThe findings suggest that practitioners, such as managers or university administrators, should focus on well-designed multicultural activities in the development of individual creativity. They should also acknowledge the enabling role of cultural intelligence in developing individual creativity and realize that social media usage should be differentiated from the outcomes of its usage.Originality/valueThis study contributes to the knowledge on the moderating role of social media usage in the relationship between multicultural experiences and creativity based on experiential learning theory. The study presents the relationship among multicultural experiences, cultural intelligence, and creativity. Moreover, by investigating the moderating roles of informational and socializing social media usage, the authors presented that an IT contingent view of multicultural experiences is helpful in understanding the relationship between multicultural experiences and cultural intelligence.

The Creative Development of Fields: Learning, Creativity, Paths, Implications

I present a model of the creative development of a field and analysis of the model based on an extensive set of simulations. A field as defined here is a domain for human activity and engagement, including for example standard academic fields as well as practical fields like law, medicine, design, and fields of technology. In the model in this paper, the field is defined in terms of the body of knowledge and elements or products that have been created in the field up to that point. The field begins from an initial state and grows as individuals enter the field and make new contributions; its basic structure resembles a lattice. New elements are created via combining preexisting elements, based on specific rules for combinations; thus I follow much of the creativity literature in defining creativity as creating novel conceptual combinations. The heart of the model is a rational, optimizing model of individual creative development, in which individuals have as their aim maximizing the expected value of their contribution to the field. An individual selects an initial set of elements in the field to learn, then gains intuitive signals about potentially fruitful new combinations based on this learning set, selects additional elements to learn, and finally chooses a potential new element to attempt to make. If the element is viable, it is added to the field, together with any subbundle elements co-created with it. The simulation analysis reveals a rich set of empirical predictions about the development of fields through this process. A first striking find is the diversity of possible paths of development starting from a given initial state. The intuitive signals individuals receive are an important factor in generating this diversity, as signals lead individuals to attempt to make elements they might otherwise not pursue, thus shaping the development of the field in important ways. The results also reveal a high degree of path dependence, generated as individuals build on the work of their predecessors, and interesting temporal patterns for how output in one period is linked with what occurred in the previous period.