Development Of Hippocampal Neurons Research Articles

Deletion of the Nucleotide Exchange Factor Vav3 Enhances Axonal Complexity and Synapse Formation but Tampers Activity of Hippocampal Neuronal Networks In Vitro.

Vav proteins activate GTPases of the RhoA subfamily that regulate the cytoskeleton and are involved in adhesion, migration, differentiation, polarity and the cell cycle. While the importance of RhoA GTPases for neuronal morphology is undisputed, their regulation is less well understood. In this perspective, we studied the consequences of the deletion of Vav2, Vav3 and Vav2 and 3 (Vav2−/−, Vav3−/−, Vav2−/−/3−/−) for the development of embryonic hippocampal neurons in vitro. Using an indirect co-culture system of hippocampal neurons with primary wild-type (WT) cortical astrocytes, we analysed axonal and dendritic parameters, structural synapse numbers and the spontaneous network activity via immunocytochemistry and multielectrode array analysis (MEA). Here, we observed a higher process complexity in Vav3−/−, but not in Vav2−/− neurons after three and five days in vitro (DIV). Furthermore, an enhanced synapse formation was observed in Vav3−/− after 14 days in culture. Remarkably, Vav2−/−/3−/− double knockout neurons did not display synergistic effects. Interestingly, these differences were transient and compensated after a cultivation period of 21 days. Network analysis revealed a diminished number of spontaneously occurring action potentials in Vav3−/− neurons after 21 DIV. Based on these results, it appears that Vav3 participates in key events of neuronal differentiation.

The Nebulin Family LIM and SH3 Proteins Regulate Postsynaptic Development and Function.

Neuronal dendrites have specialized actin-rich structures called dendritic spines that receive and integrate most excitatory synaptic inputs. The stabilization of dendrites and spines during neuronal maturation is essential for proper neural circuit formation. Changes in dendritic morphology and stability are largely mediated by regulation of the actin cytoskeleton; however, the underlying mechanisms remain to be fully elucidated. Here, we present evidence that the nebulin family members LASP1 and LASP2 play an important role in the postsynaptic development of rat hippocampal neurons from both sexes. We find that both LASP1 and LASP2 are enriched in dendritic spines, and their knockdown impairs spine development and synapse formation. Furthermore, LASP2 exerts a distinct role in dendritic arbor and dendritic spine stabilization. Importantly, the actin-binding N-terminal LIM domain and nebulin repeats of LASP2 are required for spine stability and dendritic arbor complexity. These findings identify LASP1 and LASP2 as novel regulators of neuronal circuitry.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Proper regulation of the actin cytoskeleton is essential for the structural stability of dendrites and dendritic spines. Consequently, the malformation of dendritic structures accompanies numerous neurologic disorders, such as schizophrenia and autism. Nebulin family members are best known for their role in regulating the stabilization and function of actin thin filaments in muscle. The two smallest family members, LASP1 and LASP2, are more structurally diverse and are expressed in a broader array of tissues. While both LASP1 and LASP2 are highly expressed in the brain, little is currently known about their function in the nervous system. In this study, we demonstrate the first evidence that LASP1 and LASP2 are involved in the formation and long-term maintenance of dendrites and dendritic spines.

Spectroscopic Identifications, Molecular Docking, Neuronal Growth and Enzyme Inhibitory Activities of Steroidal Nitro Olefin: Quantum Chemical Study

AbstractFT‐IR, NMR and ultraviolet spectroscopy by means of DFT / B3LYP‐6‐311G(d, p), molecular docking and biological activity of 6‐nitrocolest‐5‐en‐3‐beta‐yl acetate (steroid nitro‐olefin) was reported in this article. The optimized molecular geometric structure and its associated parameters including vibrational frequencies, carbon and 1H NMR data of the title compound in ground electronic state was obtained at DFT approach applying B3LYP/6‐311G(d,p). The ultraviolet absorbance data is obtained at TDB3LYP/6‐311G(d,p) basis set. The present computational data are found in reasonable agreement with the experimental results. Simulated electronic and NMR (1H and 13C) spectra have been reported in solution phase. Parameters like thermodynamic quantities, dipole moment, FMO energies, MEP and global reactivity descriptors of steroid nitro olefin were determined at same level of theory. The neuromodulatory effect of the compound on central nervous system development of rat embryonic hippocampal neurons has been studied. Based on the outcome; compound demonstrated suppression activity despite the promotion of neuronal cytoarchitecture leading to a negative effect on hippocampal neurons. The nature of the compound found to be toxic to the cells. Besides, steroid compound is also used to perform inhibitory activity against acetylcholinesterase (AChE) compared to the reference drug i. e. Galanthamine. The molecular docking of the synthesized compound is carried out with the structure of the acetylcholinesterase (PDB: 1DX6) protein to check the mode of interactions.

Research Progress of microRNA-761

MicroRNAs are highly evolutionarily conserved non-coding 18-25-nucleotide-length ribonucleic acids, which can regulate the key target gene expression at a post-transcription level. Recently, a great number of studies have uncovered that miR-761 is involved in the division, fusion and synthesis of mitochondria and plays a crucial suppressive or promotive role in different kinds of carcinomas. Besides, miR-761 is closely related to cardiovascular disease, hippocampal neuron shaping and development. This article reviews the research progress of miR-761. Key words: MicroRNA-761; Mitochondria; Tumor

The role of hyaluronan in the morphological development of hippocampal neurons

The role of hyaluronan in the morphological development of hippocampal neurons

Function and mechanism of long non-coding RNA Gm21284 in the development of hippocampal cholinergic neurons

BackgroundIncreasing evidence has revealed that long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) play a pivotal role in the development of nervous system. Our previous studies have demonstrated that enhanced cholinergic neurogenesis occurs in the subgranular zone (SGZ) of the hippocampal dentate gyrus (DG) after cholinergic denervation, which is closely associated with the core transcription factor Lhx8. This study aimed to identify novel lncRNAs in a denervated hippocampal niche, which may affect cholinergic neurogenesis, and to explore the molecular mechanisms underlying cholinergic neurogenesis.MethodsThe gene expression profiles of the denervated hippocampus were examined by microarray analysis, and targeted lncRNAs were filtered using bioinformatics analysis. The lncRNA Gm21284 was predicted to be associated with Lhx8. RT-PCR and FISH were used to observe the expression and localization of Gm21284 in vitro and in vivo. The interaction between Gm21284 and Lhx8 and miR-30e-3P was verified using the luciferase reporter gene assay. Cell proliferation and differentiation was observed to reveal the effects of Gm21284 in cholinergic neurogenesis.ResultsMicroarray analysis demonstrated 482 up-regulated and 135 down-regulated mRNAs, 125 up-regulated and 55 down-regulated lncRNAs, and 10 up-regulated and 3 down-regulated miRNAs in the denervated hippocampal niche. Overall, 32 lncRNAs were differentially expressed in the denervated hippocampal niche, which could interact with miR-30e-3p, miR-431, and miR-147. Among these 32 lncRNAs, Gm21284 and Adarb1 were identified after interleaving with lncRNAs in a co-expression network and WGCNA. Gm21284 was mainly located in the hippocampal DG. Furthermore, Gm21284-positive cells were considerably increased in the denervated hippocampus than in the normal side. EdU proliferation assay revealed that the proliferation of neural stem cells was repressed after the overexpression of Gm21284. Compared with the control group, the proportion of ChAT-positive cells increased at 7 days of differentiation of NSCs overexpressing Gm21284.ConclusionThus, Gm21284 functions as a competing endogenous RNA, which inhibits the proliferation of hippocampal NSCs and promotes their differentiation toward cholinergic neurons by inhibiting miR-30e-3P competitively.

Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG and Bifidobacterium bifidum TMC3115 Can Affect Development of Hippocampal Neurons Cultured In Vitro in a Strain-Dependent Manner.

This study examined whether Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG (LGG) and Bifidobacterium bifidum TMC3115 (TMC3115) could morphologically or physiologically influence hippocampal neuronal development in vitro. Hippocampal neurons cultured in vitro were exposed to live or heat-inactivated LGG or TMC3115 for either 6 or 24h. Neuronal morphological changes and drebrin (DRB) and synaptophysin (SYP) protein levels were monitored using immunofluorescence. And the levels of DRB, SYP, and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), and cAMP-response element binding protein (CREB) mRNA were detected using RT-PCR. The BDNF, CREB, and phosphorylated-CREB (P-CREB) protein levels were detected by extraction-enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) or Western blot assays. Heat-inactivated LGG and TMC3115 could enhance neuron viability, DRB and SYP protein levels, and BDNF mRNA level were significantly altered after exposure to the tested bacteria with 6h or 24h. There were no significant differences in neuronal morphology or DRB, SYP, or CREB mRNA levels among the groups following bacterial exposure. However, following exposure of live TMC3115 for 24h, the neuronal BDNF and P-CREB protein levels were both significantly up-regulated as detected by western blot assays. These results demonstrated that LGG and TMC3115 could affect neuronal viability, along with hippocampal synaptic and functional development, in a strain-dependent manner, which may also be closely associated with the physiological and culture conditions of each strain. Up-regulated P-CREB may be one of the underlying mechanisms by which the bacteria, especially neurons following exposure of live TMC3115 for 24h, are able to regulate neuronal BDNF protein production.

High-Density Electrical Recording and Impedance Imaging With a Multi-Modal CMOS Multi-Electrode Array Chip.

Multi-electrode arrays, both active or passive, emerged as ideal technologies to unveil intricated electrophysiological dynamics of cells and tissues. Active MEAs, designed using complementary metal oxide semiconductor technology (CMOS), stand over passive devices thanks to the possibility of achieving single-cell resolution, the reduced electrode size, the reduced crosstalk and the higher functionality and portability. Nevertheless, most of the reported CMOS MEA systems mainly rely on a single operational modality, which strongly hampers the applicability range of a single device. This can be a limiting factor considering that most biological and electrophysiological dynamics are often based on the synergy of multiple and complex mechanisms acting from different angles on the same phenomena. Here, we designed a CMOS MEA chip with 16,384 titanium nitride electrodes, 6 independent operational modalities and 1,024 parallel recording channels for neuro-electrophysiological studies. Sixteen independent active areas are patterned on the chip surface forming a 4 × 4 matrix, each one including 1,024 electrodes. Electrodes of four different sizes are present on the chip surface, ranging from 2.5 × 3.5 μm2 up to 11 × 11.0 μm2, with 15 μm pitch. In this paper, we exploited the impedance monitoring and voltage recording modalities not only to monitor the growth and development of primary rat hippocampal neurons, but also to assess their electrophysiological activity over time showing a mean spike amplitude of 144.8 ± 84.6 μV. Fixed frequency (1 kHz) and high sampling rate (30 kHz) impedance measurements were used to evaluate the cellular adhesion and growth on the chip surface. Thanks to the high-density configuration of the electrodes, as well as their dimension and pitch, the chip can appreciate the evolutions of the cell culture morphology starting from the moment of the seeding up to mature culture conditions. The measurements were confirmed by fluorescent staining. The effect of the different electrode sizes on the spike amplitudes and noise were also discussed. The multi-modality of the presented CMOS MEA allows for the simultaneous assessment of different physiological properties of the cultured neurons. Therefore, it can pave the way both to answer complex fundamental neuroscience questions as well as to aid the current drug-development paradigm.

Lactobacillus Rhamnosus GG and Bifidobacterium Bifidum TMC3115 Can Affect the Development of Hippocampal Neurons Cultured in Vitro in a Strain-dependent Manner (P20-009-19)

ObjectivesThis study aimed to examine whether probiotics could morphologically or physiologically influence hippocampal neuron development. MethodsHippocampal neurons cultured in vitro were exposed to live or heat-inactivated Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG (LGG), or live or heat-inactivated Bifidobacterium bifidum TMC3115 (TMC3115), for either 6 or 24 h. Neuron viability was then tested using the methyl thiazolyl tetrazolium assay. Neuronal morphological changes and drebrin (DRB) and synaptophysin (SYP) protein levels were monitored using immunofluorescence. And the levels of DRB, SYP, and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), and cAMP-response element binding protein (CREB) mRNA were detected using RT-PCR. The BDNF, CREB and phosphorylated-CREB (P-CREB) protein levels were detected by ELISA or Western blot assays. ResultsWe found exposure to probiotics could enhance neuron viability, although no significant differences were found in neuronal morphology among the groups following exposure to the test bacteria. However, the synapse development-related proteins, DRB and SYP, as well as BDNF and P-CREB protein levels, were significantly altered in this specific culture system. ConclusionsThese results demonstrated that LGG and TMC3115 exposure can affect neuronal viability, along with synaptic and brain function development, in a strain-dependent manner, which may also be closely associated with the physiological and cultural conditions of each strain, The up-regulated P-CREB protein level may be one of the underlying mechanisms by which the tested bacteria, especially live TMC3115 following exposure for 24 h, are able to regulate neuronal BDNF protein production. Further studies are needed to explore other possible effects probiotic exposure may have on hippocampal neurons, as well as the corresponding mechanisms that underlie them. Funding SourcesThis work was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant number 81872606).

PSD95 regulates morphological development of adult-born granule neurons in the mouse hippocampus

In the adult hippocampus new neurons are generated in the dentate gyrus from neural progenitor cells. Adult-born neurons integrate into the hippocampal circuitry and contribute to hippocampal function. PSD95 is a major postsynaptic scaffold protein that is crucial for morphological maturation and synaptic development of hippocampal neurons. Here we study the function of PSD95 in adult hippocampal neurogenesis by downregulating PSD95 expression in newborn cells using retroviral-mediated RNA interference. Retroviruses coding for a control shRNA or an shRNA targeting PSD95 (shPSD95) were stereotaxically injected into the dorsal dentate gyrus of 2-month-old C57BL/6 mice. PSD95 knockdown did not affect neuronal differentiation of newborn cells into neurons, or migration of newborn neurons into the granule cell layer. Morphological analysis revealed that newborn neurons expressing shPSD95 showed increased dendritic length and increased number of high-order dendrites. Concomitantly, dendrites from shPSD95-expressing newborn granule neurons showed a reduction in the density of dendritic spines. These results suggest that PSD95 is required for proper dendritic and spine maturation of adult-born neurons, but not for early stages of neurogenesis in the hippocampus.

Varying Effects of the G‐Protein Coupled Estrogen Receptor During Development in Embryonic Rat Hippocampal and Cortical Neurons

Estrogen has been known to play a role in enhancing brain development for over half a century. Most studies of estrogen's effect on the nervous system have focused on the traditional estrogen receptors Estrogen Receptor‐α (ERα) and Estrogen Receptor‐β (ERβ). The recent discovery of the G‐Protein Coupled Estrogen Receptor (GPER) suggests knowledge of estrogen's effects may be incomplete. While evidence has suggested the roles GPER plays in the nervous system include neuroprotection, neuronal recovery from stroke and degeneration, neuron proliferation, as well as many others. A caveat is that most studies have looked only at the effect in mature neurons and not the effect GPER has during early neuronal development. Here we sought to study the role of GPER activity in neurite outgrowth and synapse formation during early development.Embryonic day 18 rat cortical and hippocampal neurons were cultured in estrogen‐ and phenol red‐ free medium in the presence of a nonselective ER agonist (E2), a selective GPER agonist (G‐1), and a selective GPER antagonist (G‐15). Neurite growth was measured at 20, 48, 72, and 96 hours in culture using the ImageJ plugin NeuronJ. Synapses were visualized at 7 and 14 days in culture by using immunofluorescence of the pre‐ and post‐synaptic markers, synaptophysin and PSD‐95, respectively. Synapse formation was measured by measuring the overlap between these markers in ImageJ. Our data revealed activation of GPER promoted neurite growth in hippocampal neurons, but not in cortical neurons, but blocking the receptor inhibited neurite growth in cortical neurons. In addition, low levels of G1 (1μM) inhibited neurite outgrowth in cortical neurons. Cortical neurons showed no significant difference in synapse formation, while in hippocampal neurons the effect varied based on time period and dosage. This provides the first evidence that GPER activation may play different roles in brain regions, as well as having specific dosage based effects in specific regions. Future experiments will investigate the molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying the pharmacological differences in GPER effects between developing cortical and hippocampal neurons.Support or Funding InformationThis project was supported by the Saint Louis University Start‐up Fund for Dr. Xu lab and the Sigma XI Grant‐In‐Aid of Research awarded to Mr. Kyle Pemberton.This abstract is from the Experimental Biology 2019 Meeting. There is no full text article associated with this abstract published in The FASEB Journal.

TRPC4 Channels are a Key Player in Hippocampal Neuronal Development

TRPC4 Channels are a Key Player in Hippocampal Neuronal Development

Effects of dexmedetomidine on the growth and development of rat hippocampal neurons and its mechanism

To investigate the effects of dexmedetomidine (DEX) on hippocampal neuron development process and the expressions of molecules in brain-derived neurotropic factor (BDNF)-tyrosine receptor kinase B (TrkB) signaling pathway in neonatal rats. The hippocampal neurons were isolated from neonatal rats and cultured in vitro. The cells were seeded in 96-well plates,which were divided into 4 groups (control group, 1 μmol/L DEX treatment group, 5 μmol/L DEX treatment group, 50 μmol/L DEX treatment group), six wells were set in each group, and different concentrations of dexmedetomidine 1, 5 and 50 μmol/L were administered respectively. Cell viability was detected at 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10 d after treatment, and apoptosis was detected 10 days after treatment. The mRNA expression levels of synaptophysin (SYN) and postsynaptic density protein 95 (PSD95) were detected by q-PCR, and the expressions of BDNF, TrkB and N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) protein were analyzed. Compared with the control group, there was no significant difference in neuronal cell viability between the different doses of DEX treatment group. There was no significant difference in the expression of SYN and PSD95 mRNA and TrkB protein between the 1 μmol/L and 5 μmol/L DEX treatment groups (P＞0.05). The expression levels of SYN and PSD95 mRNA in the 50 μmol/L DEX group were increased significantly (P＜0.01), and the expression level of BDNF protein was up-regulated significantly (P＜0.01), the expression of the p-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor was increased (P＜0.01). 50 μmol/L DEX has a certain effect on rat hippocampal neurons, which may be achieved by up-regulating the expression of BDNF and the phosphorylation level of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor.

B23/Nucleophosmin promotes reconstitution of synaptic path in hippocampus after injury

B23, also known as nucleophosmin (NPM), is multifunctional protein directly implicated in cell proliferation, cell cycle progression, and cell survival. In the current study, in addition to confirming its anti-apoptotic function in neuronal survival, we demonstrated that the spatial-temporal expression profile of B23 during development of hippocampal neurons is high in the embryonic stage, down-regulated after birth, and preferentially localized at the tips of growing neuritis and branching points. Overexpression of B23 promotes axon growth with abundant branching points in growing hippocampal neurons, but depletion of B23 impairs axon growth, leading to neuronal death. Following injury to the trisynaptic path in hippocampal slice, overexpression of B23 remarkably increased the number and length of regenerative fibers in the mossy fiber path. Our study suggests that B23 expression in developing neurons is essential for neuritogenesis and axon growth and that up-regulation of B23 may be a strategy for enhancing the reconstitution of synaptic paths after injury to hippocampal synapses.

Chronic Energy Depletion due to Iron Deficiency Impairs Dendritic Mitochondrial Motility during Hippocampal Neuron Development.

During development, neurons require highly integrated metabolic machinery to meet the large energy demands of growth, differentiation, and synaptic activity within their complex cellular architecture. Dendrites/axons require anterograde trafficking of mitochondria for local ATP synthesis to support these processes. Acute energy depletion impairs mitochondrial dynamics, but how chronic energy insufficiency affects mitochondrial trafficking and quality control during neuronal development is unknown. Because iron deficiency impairs mitochondrial respiration/ATP production, we treated mixed-sex embryonic mouse hippocampal neuron cultures with the iron chelator deferoxamine (DFO) to model chronic energetic insufficiency and its effects on mitochondrial dynamics during neuronal development. At 11 days in vitro (DIV), DFO reduced average mitochondrial speed by increasing the pause frequency of individual dendritic mitochondria. Time spent in anterograde motion was reduced; retrograde motion was spared. The average size of moving mitochondria was reduced, and the expression of fusion and fission genes was altered, indicating impaired mitochondrial quality control. Mitochondrial density was not altered, suggesting that respiratory capacity and not location is the key factor for mitochondrial regulation of early dendritic growth/branching. At 18 DIV, the overall density of mitochondria within terminal dendritic branches was reduced in DFO-treated neurons, which may contribute to the long-term deficits in connectivity and synaptic function following early-life iron deficiency. The study provides new insights into the cross-regulation between energy production and dendritic mitochondrial dynamics during neuronal development and may be particularly relevant to neuropsychiatric and neurodegenerative diseases, many of which are characterized by impaired brain iron homeostasis, energy metabolism and mitochondrial trafficking.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT This study uses a primary neuronal culture model of iron deficiency to address a gap in understanding of how dendritic mitochondrial dynamics are regulated when energy depletion occurs during a critical period of neuronal maturation. At the beginning of peak dendritic growth/branching, iron deficiency reduces mitochondrial speed through increased pause frequency, decreases mitochondrial size, and alters fusion/fission gene expression. At this stage, mitochondrial density in terminal dendrites is not altered, suggesting that total mitochondrial oxidative capacity and not trafficking is the main mechanism underlying dendritic complexity deficits in iron-deficient neurons. Our findings provide foundational support for future studies exploring the mechanistic role of developmental mitochondrial dysfunction in neurodevelopmental, psychiatric, and neurodegenerative disorders characterized by mitochondrial energy production and trafficking deficits.

Differential effects of adolescent and adult-initiated exercise on cognition and hippocampal neurogenesis.

Adolescence is a critical period for postnatal brain maturation and thus a time when environmental influences may affect cognitive processes in later life. Exercise during adulthood has been shown to increase hippocampal neurogenesis and enhance cognition. However, the impact of exercise initiated in adolescence on the brain and behavior in adulthood is not fully understood. The aim of this study was to compare the impact of voluntary exercise that is initiated during adolescence or early adulthood on cognitive performance in hippocampal-dependent and -independent processes using both object-based and touchscreen operant paradigms. Adult (8 week) and adolescent (4 week) male Sprague-Dawley rats had access to a running wheel (exercise) or were left undisturbed (sedentary control) for 4 weeks prior to behavioral testing and for the duration of the experiment. Results from touchscreen-based tasks showed that reversal learning was enhanced by both adult and adolescent-initiated exercise, while only exercise that began in adolescence induced a subtle but transient increase in performance on a location discrimination task. Spontaneous alternation in the Y-maze was impaired following adolescent onset exercise, while object memory was unaffected by either adult or adolescent-initiated exercise. Adolescent-initiated exercise increased the number of hippocampal DCX cells, an indicator of neurogenesis. It also promoted the complexity of neurites on DCX cells, a key process for synaptic integration, to a greater degree than adult-initiated exercise. Together the data here show that exercise during the adolescent period compared to adulthood differentially affects cognitive processes and the development of new hippocampal neurons in later life.

Possible mechanisms of prenatal cold stress induced-anxiety-like behavior depression in offspring rats

Environmental factors and prenatal stress have long-term effects on offspring behavior, physical development, hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis regulation, immune activity, and disease susceptibility. To further understand the effects of prenatal cold stress on offspring, we investigated the behavior change; the expression of glucocorticoid receptor (GR), mineralocorticoid receptor (MR), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), insulin-like growth factor 1 receptor (IGF1R), neuronal nuclei (NEUN), glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor 1 (CRHR1), Gamma-aminobutyric acid B receptor, 2 (GABAB2) proteins in hippocampus; the ratio of CD4/CD8 lymphocyte subsets and the level of norepinephrine (NE), dopamine (DA) in the peripheral blood of weaned offspring rats using behavioral tests and biology analysis methods. The results showed that prenatal cold stress affected offspring HPA axis activity, inhibited the expression of MR, BDNF and IGF1R in the hippocampus of male offspring, and lowered the expression of GR in female offspring. The expression levels of NEUN and GFAP in the hippocampus of male and female offspring were also reduced, which may have affected the growth and development of neurons. Moreover, prenatal cold stress inhibited the expression of CRHR1 and GABAB2 in the hippocampus of male offspring, leading to decreased anxiety-like behavior in offspring; a reduced ratio of CD4 and CD8 lymphocyte subsets in the peripheral blood of male offspring; and inhibition of offspring cell immunity. In summary, prenatal cold stress inhibits the growth and development of hippocampal neurons in weaned offspring rats, and induces offspring anxiety-like behavior reduced.

Exposure to Di-(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate During Perinatal Period Gender-Specifically Impairs the Dendritic Growth of Pyramidal Neurons in Rat Offspring.

Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), as a prevalent xenoestrogen endocrine disrupter, is omnipresent in the environment and commonly used in polyethylene plastic products. Although DEHP has potential adverse effects on multisystem organs, damage to the central nervous system is more significant. However, the consequences and mechanisms of DEHP exposure remain to be explored. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects and related mechanisms of maternal DEHP exposure on dendritic development of hippocampal pyramidal neurons in a rat model. Pregnant Wistar rats were intragastrically administrated either vehicle or DEHP (30, 300, and 750 mg/kg/d) from gestation day 0 to postnatal day (PN) 21. The dendritic length and complexity of dendritic arbors’ pattern in pyramidal neurons of the hippocampus were measured using Golgi–Cox staining and Sholl analysis. The expression of dendritic development-related proteins was detected using western blot and immunofluorescence staining. DEHP-treated male but not female pups showed an obvious decrease in the total length and branching numbers of basal dendrites on PN7, PN14, and PN21. The phosphorylation of MAP2c, stathmin, and JNK1 in the male pup hippocampus was significantly decreased in DEHP treatment groups compared to controls. However, protein expression alteration in the hippocampus of female offspring was not observed. In summary, our study indicated that DEHP has a gender-specific negative impact on the dendritic growth of CA1 pyramidal neurons in male offspring of a rat model of DEHP exposure. The adverse impact may be related to the dysregulation of phosphorylated and total MAP2c and stathmin mediated by JNK1.

Effects of p21 on adult hippocampal neuronal development after irradiation

Inhibition of hippocampal neurogenesis is implicated in neurocognitive impairment after cranial irradiation. We recently demonstrated that disruption of neuronal development after DNA damage was regulated by p53. The cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 1 or p21, a downstream effector p53, mediates cell cycle arrest in response to DNA damage. There is evidence that p21 negatively regulates proliferation of neural progenitors (NPCs). Here we characterized the effects of p21 on disruption of neuronal development in the hippocampal dentate gyrus after irradiation. We irradiated young adult mice wild type (+/+) or knockout (−/−) of the Cdkn1a (p21) gene, and used different bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) paradigms for cell fate mapping. The acute apoptotic response of NPCs in the subgranular zone of the dentate gyrus was independent of p21 after irradiation. In nonirradiated mice, p21 knockout resulted in an increase in neuroblast proliferation and neurogenesis. At 9 weeks after 5Gy, NPCs in the subgranular zone demonstrated increased p21 expression. Loss of newborn type-1 cells and disruption of hippocampal neurogenesis was evident at 9 weeks after irradiation, and these effects were independent of p21 genotype status. Within the developmental milestones of NPCs, irradiation resulted in loss of early intermediate NPCs (type-2a cells) in wild-type mice, whereas the principal effect of irradiation with p21 loss was culling of proliferating late intermediate (type-2b cells) and neuroblasts. These results suggest that p21 exerts differential effects on cell fate of NPCs after irradiation. p21 may serve to protect proliferating late NPCs but does not alter the ultimate inhibition of new neuron production after DNA damage.

ApoE Regulates the Development of Adult Newborn Hippocampal Neurons

Adult hippocampal neurogenesis occurs throughout life and is believed to participate in cognitive functions such as learning and memory. A number of genes that regulate adult hippocampal neurogenesis have been identified, although most of these have been implicated in progenitor proliferation and survival, but not in the development into fully differentiated neurons. Among these genes, apolipoprotein E (ApoE) is particularly compelling because the human ApoE isoform E4 is a risk factor for the development of Alzheimer’s disease, where hippocampal neurogenesis is reported to be dysfunctional. To investigate the effects of ApoE and its human isoforms on adult hippocampal neurogenesis and neuronal development, retroviruses carrying a GFP-expressing vector were injected into wild-type (WT), ApoE-deficient, and human targeted replacement (ApoE3 and ApoE4) mice to infect progenitors in the dentate gyrus and analyze the morphology of fully developed GFP-expressing neurons. Analysis of these adult-born neurons revealed significant decreases in the complexity of dendritic arborizations and spine density in ApoE-deficient mice compared with WT mice, as well as in ApoE4 mice compared with ApoE3. These findings demonstrate that ApoE deficiency and the ApoE4 human isoform both impair hippocampal neurogenesis and give insight into how ApoE may influence hippocampal-related neurological diseases.