Forest Development Research Articles

Development of a random forest based algorithm for road health monitoring

Road damages, such as potholes and rutting, must be addressed in their early stages to prevent accidents and minimize maintenance costs. The presence of these damages not only causes discomfort to passengers but also accelerates vehicle deterioration. Improper material mixtures and inadequate maintenance practices often contribute to road damage. In recent years, numerous machine learning (ML) algorithms have been developed with a predominant focus on binary classification, specifically targeting potholes. However, roads are susceptible to various damages beyond potholes, necessitating a comprehensive approach for effective solutions. This study introduces a novel algorithm utilizing a random forest (RF) classifier for multi-class classification of road damages. The proposed algorithm is validated through rigorous simulation and field studies. Unlike previous models, this approach embraces a comprehensive perspective by considering a wider range of damages, thereby facilitating a more nuanced and inclusive process for the classification of road damages. In the field study, data has been collected using a set of uni-axial accelerometers and a smartphone camera mounted on a test vehicle. The data has been processed using the sliding window technique, and features have been extracted from each window to train the RF classifier. In this process, an optimal window size has been determined and employed to enhance the effectiveness of feature extraction for training the RF classifier. The proposed algorithm demonstrates significant accuracy in both simulation and field studies, with notable performance in identifying and classifying road damages. The algorithm’s outcomes are utilized to estimate a detailed cost for repairing the identified damages. This paper showcases proficiency in addressing various damages, offering valuable insights for the implementation of cost-effective road maintenance strategies.

Functional richness mediates landscape and management effects on tree biomass and soil fertility during secondary forest succession

Secondary forests can play a critical role in conserving plant biodiversity and sequestering carbon. However, intensive past management, fragmentation, and initial soil fertility can hinder forest recovery during secondary succession, especially in terms of tree species selection. In turn, tree species selection can negatively impact soil fertility recovery and may slow down the succession process, but the direct and indirect effects between these factors remain unclear. To assess the complex interactions among landscape, previous management, soil and vegetation, 27 secondary forests of varying ages, previously used for eucalyptus plantations, located in diverse landscape configurations within the Atlantic Forest biome, were examined. Key variables, such as planting frequency, cutting frequency, forest cover in the landscape, patch isolation between fragments, functional richness, tree aboveground biomass (AGB), soil sum of bases, soil organic matter, and soil phosphorus concentration were used to construct a structural equation model to evaluate the direct and indirect effects of landscape and previous management on forest development. Cutting frequency and patch isolation had a negative direct effect on functional richness. Additionally, a strong positive direct effect of functional diversity on aboveground biomass and soil sum of bases was found. Thus, cutting frequency and patch isolation had negative indirect effects on biomass and soil sum of bases (a proxy for soil fertility), mediated by functional richness. These findings underscore the significance of integrating plant functional diversity into restoration strategies to preserve ecosystem functioning and efficiently recover biodiversity, tree biomass, and soil fertility in secondary forests.

Forest resilience and post-fire conifer regeneration in the southern Cascades, Lassen Volcanic National Park California, USA

Contemporary fire regimes in Californian forests are shifting, with fires becoming larger, more frequent, and increasingly severe. As landscapes transition back to active fire regimes, understanding how the physical environment and biological legacies of past disturbance interact with and determine forest development becomes an increasingly important management concern. We surveyed post-fire regeneration in a wilderness area of Lassen Volcanic National Park (LAVO) with a three-decade history of fires. We tallied conifer seedlings , and measured shrub and ground cover and mature trees in the field, and used geospatial data and water balance models to account for the possible effects of , terrain, live seed sources, vegetation characteristics, and immediate post-fire climate as measured by water balance on conifer regeneration. We used a Random Forest machine learning technique to model how landscape and local factors affect post-fire regeneration stocking and species regeneration occurrence. Post-fire conifer regeneration in LAVO was common: Median post-fire seedling density was close to desired stocking density, 73% of our plots had at least one conifer seedling, and only 16% of plots lacked tree regeneration or mature trees. Likelihood of stocking and individual species’ occurrence was most strongly related to time since fire, distance to forest, elevation, and species of nearest seed source. Tree regeneration increased with time since fire, but this effect was more pronounced at high elevation suggesting an interaction between terrain and time since fire on regeneration. Stocking was most likely on cooler (northeastern) slopes and at lower (<1950 m) elevations, nearer (within 200 m) to live forest patches, and where shrub cover was present but low (<20%). Climatic conditions as represented by water balance for the first five years after a fire did not influence likelihood of stocking but it did influence species occurrence. Distance to conspecific trees was important for species’ regeneration occurrence, and the landscape pattern of species occurrence was consistent with the elevational zonation of forest dominants in LAVO. Adequate tree regeneration of forests with an active fire regime in LAVO indicate that California montane forests are resilient to prescribed fire and managed wildfire and that expanded use of fire to reduce potential for severe fire promotes resilience in California forest landscapes.

Does lower water availability limit stem CO2 efflux of oak and hornbeam coppices?

Recent changes in water availability can be crucial for the development, growth and carbon budget of forests. Therefore, our aim was to determine the effect of reduced throughfall and severe summer drought on stem CO2 efflux as a function of temperature and stem increment. Stem CO2 efflux was measured using the chamber method on oak and hornbeam under four treatments: coppice, thinned coppice, and both coppice and thinned coppice with 30 %-reduced throughfall. The first year of the experiment had favourable soil water availability and the second year was characterized by a dry summer. While reduced throughfall had no effect on stem CO2 efflux, the summer drought decreased efflux by 43-81 % during July and August. The stem CO2 efflux was reduced less severely (by 13-40 %) in September when the drought persisted but the stem increment was already negligible. The stem increment was also strongly affected by the drought, which was reflected in its paired relationship with stem CO2 efflux over the two experimental years. The study showed that summer dry periods significantly and rapidly reduce stem CO2 efflux, whereas a constant 30 % rainfall reduction needs probably a longer time to affect stem properties, and indirectly stem CO2 efflux.

Potential Criteria to Determine a Waqf-Based Forest Location Case Study: Bogor Waqf Forest, Bogor, Indonesia

Waqf-based forests can conserve the forest ecosystem by applying waqf principles. This initiative has been implemented in several places in Indonesia. The limited funds available for waqf-based forest development require nazhir to carefully choose the best location so that the asset can function optimally. However, no specific research has been conducted to guide the selection of the best location for this purpose. This study aimed to identify potential criteria to help determine the best site for developing a waqf-based forest. Several methods were used to collect the necessary data, including literature reviews, in-depth interviews, field observations, and focus group discussions. This study identifies four crucial criteria when selecting the best locations: a) legal, b) physical and biophysical, c) high conservation value and benefits, and d) management. In addition, each criterion has sub-criteria. Among all, legal issues receive the highest highlight as unresolved regulations can affect a forest's ownership and function. This study was the first to discuss these criteria. Future research should quantify the criteria suggested using GIS and conduct more field observations in existing waqf-based forests in Indonesia.

Сохранение видового разнообразия растений при лесопользовании в ключевых биотопах Вологодской области

A reduction in the number of biological species can cause a loss of the integrity of the biosphere and its ability to maintain the most important characteristics of the natural environment. Therefore, scientific research and the development of practical recommendations in the field of conservation of biological diversity in forest management are currently of particular relevance. Measures to preserve biodiversity in forest management are reflected in the rules of timber harvesting, forestry regulations of forestries and forest development projects. The conservation of biological diversity in the course of logging operations is provided by allocating key biotopes – forest plots of a certain area, especially significant as habitats for rare species of animals and plants. The analysis of the Red Book of the Vologda Region showed that 29 % of rare species are confined to forest areas along watercourses. The study has been conducted at stationary sites within the boundaries of the Vologda Forestry of the Vologda Region (the Southern taiga area of the European part of the Russian Federation), represented by clear cuttings of 2018–2019 with the preserved key biotopes – forest areas along temporary water bodies. The average values for the plantations have been obtained on the basis of the materials from allotment and taxation of the cutting areas before felling. The work has been based on silvicultural and taxation, as well as ecological and biological methods of field evaluation and desk assessment. During the field studies (2023) in the key biotopes, a tally has been carried out by tree species, their diameters at chest height and categories of sanitary condition, with the determination of the average taxation indicators of the stands. The soils and the botanical composition of the live ground cover have been described. The species diversity and abundance of plant species in the key biotopes, as well as in the adjacent areas – in the cuttings and in the stands – have been determined. A higher number of species of taiga flora and the presence of rare plant species in the key biotopes, in contrast to the cuttings, have been established, which indicates the need to preserve the key biotopes during logging operations. Within the boundaries of the key biotopes studied, the average number of plant species in the buffer zone exceeds the number of species in the core of the biotope, the differences are statistically significant. Therefore, in the process of allotment of cutting areas, in addition to the allocation of the central part, or the core of the biotope, it is necessary to preserve a buffer zone as the area with the largest number of species.

Balancing Forest Tourism and Environmental Protection

In light of escalating global environmental issues, balancing forest tourism development with effective environmental protection has become a critical academic and practical concern. This study investigates the equilibrium mechanisms between forest tourism and environmental protection, focusing on policy regulation, community involvement, and ecological compensation under globalization. Employing a literature review and theoretical analysis, the study systematically reviews relevant research and introduces a new theoretical framework to elucidate the interaction between tourism development and environmental sustainability. The research identifies the negative impacts of forest tourism on the environment and the shortcomings of current development models. It then explores sustainable principles to optimize forest tourism planning and management, aiming to promote economic growth while protecting forest ecosystems. Results indicate that achieving this balance requires sound planning, policy support, and heightened public environmental awareness and participation. The study ultimately proposes a theoretical model for "eco-friendly" forest tourism, offering insights for future policy and management practices.

Changes and driving factors of microbial community composition and functional groups during the decomposition of Pinus massoniana deadwood.

Clarifying changes in the microbial community in deadwood at different stages of decomposition is crucial for comprehending the role of deadwood in the biogeochemical processes and the sustainability of forest development. However, there have been no reports on the dynamics of microbial community during the decomposition of Pinus massoniana. We used the "space-for-time" substitution to analyze the characteristics of microbial community changes and the key influencing factors in the P. massoniana deadwood during different decomposition stages by 16S and ITS rRNA gene sequencing. The results suggest that the microbial community structure of the early decomposition (decay class I) was significantly different from the other decay classes, while the diversity and richness of the microbial community were the highest in the late decomposition (decay class V). The Linear Discriminant Analysis Effect Size analysis revealed that most bacterial and fungal taxa were significantly enriched in decay classes I and V deadwood. During the initial stages of decomposition, the relative abundance of the bacterial functional group responsible for carbohydrate metabolism was greater than the later stages. As decomposition progressed, the relative abundance of saprophytic fungi gradually decreased, and there was a shift in the comparative abundance of mixed saprophytic-symbiotic fungi from low to high before eventually decreasing. Total organic carbon, total nitrogen, carbon-to-nitrogen ratio, total potassium, total phenol, condensed tannin, lignin, and cellulose were significantly correlated with microbial community structure, with the carbon-to-nitrogen ratio having the greatest effect. Our results indicate that the physicochemical properties of deadwood, microbial community structural composition and functional group changes were related to the decay class, among which the carbon-to-nitrogen ratio may be an important factor affecting the composition and diversity of microbial communities.

Moderate-severity silvicultural methods generate better forest reorganization than other silvicultural methods in temperate rainforests four decades after implementation

Silvicultural regeneration methods promote regeneration of new tree cohorts following the harvest of mature trees and include a gradient of options from cutting all (clearcuts) or some (selection cuts) trees resulting in even- or uneven-aged forests. For forest managers and landowners, it is essential to have the best possible information on how forests reorganize following these different methods. Forest development, composition and growth are dependent on site quality and harvest type. In this study we evaluated two even-aged (clearcut (CC), seed-tree cut (STC)), one two-aged cut (extended irregular shelterwood (ISC)), one uneven-aged (single-tree selection cut (SC)), and an unmanaged control (CON), four decades after harvest implementation in old-growth Evergreen temperate rainforests above 500 m a.s.l. in the Coastal Range of south-central Chile. These forests grow on poor-quality sites due to old and shallow soil conditions and were dominated by late-successional species and a thick understory with the bamboo Chusquea machrostachya at the time of harvest implementation. Compositional and structural conditions reflected the type of harvests, with even- and two-aged methods largely similar to one another and the SC and the OG having very similar characteristics, which is likely a consequence of the very light severity of the SC. Tree species composition in even-aged harvests was dominated by shade midtolerant species of high timber value, although short-lived pioneer species of the Proteaceae family were also abundant, especially in ISC. The ISC had the greatest homogeneity in all stand variables (tree density, basal area, volume, and quadratic stand diameter), and since it was a two-layered forest, had basal areas and volumes close to the SC and OG, and a rotated-sigmoid diameter distribution (different to all other treatments). Height of the new cohort in the ISC was significantly taller than in the CC and the STC for most species’ groups, suggesting that the cut plus the residual canopy of ISC diminished the initial cover of the bamboo C. macrostachya and competition for regeneration. Only diameter growth of trees of all shade tolerances was lower in ISC, but diameter growth patterns were similar to CC and STC, with increasing growth during the first two-three decades followed by a decline. Based on these findings, we conclude that silvicultural methods of intermediate harvesting severity, especially ISC, provide the best ecological and economic option in these poor-quality sites given rapid reorganization following their implementation, while maintaining a relatively complex vertical structure, high tree species diversity, and a growing stock dominated by tree species of high timber value.

Physico-chemical properties of Brazilian native bamboo species

Despite the worldwide social and economic importance of bamboos, most species have been poorly studied in areas with high species richness, such as Brazil. We conducted a physico-chemical characterization of four bamboo species native to southern Brazil. Merostachys skvortzovii Send. and Chusquea meyeriana Rupr. ex Döll are the most common and occur frequently as dominant invasive species, Apoclada simplex McClure & L.B.Sm. is listed as a threatened species, and Chusquea cf. gracilis is a rare species. Juvenile and adult samples were analyzed for moisture, ash, extractives, lignin, carbon (C), hydrogen (H), nitrogen (N), sulfur (S), silicon (Si), oxygen content (O), and inorganic analytes. Important differences were found between adults and juveniles and among the studied species. The results point to higher cellulose content for Chusquea cf. gracilis and C. meyeriana, while Chusquea meyeriana presented the greatest diversity of chemical elements. Overall, the results can inform the development of new applications of these species. This is particularly important for Merostachys skvortzovii and Chusquea meyeriana as they have widespread ecological importance and can arrest forest successional development in the region.

Adaptive Silviculture and Climate Change—A Forced Marriage of the 21st Century?

Climatic changes significantly impact forest ecosystems, inevitably affecting forestry and forest-related industry. Considering that most forests are actively managed, there is a need to define the future risks and set a strategy for forestry and silviculture in a changing world. This review provides insight into the new challenges and opportunities forest management and silviculture face in the coming decades. There is sound recognition of risk factors expected from climate change, yet great uncertainty exists in the predictions of the response of forests to new conditions. Additionally, the stakeholders’ interests in the goods and services offered by forests are changing, and this also needs to be taken into account in future forest management. Undoubtedly, the goal of future forestry and silviculture in the 21st century will be primarily to ensure the continuity and sustainability of the forest. Sustainable use of goods and ecosystem services from forests will be directly related to the continuity and sustainability of the forest in the future. Adaptive forest management aims to promote the adaptive capacity of forests to new conditions resulting from climate change. If adaptation efforts are effective, adaptive forest management should be a kind of risk management. There is no one-fits-all strategy for adaptation to uncertain future conditions. Silviculture in the 21st century is expected to be more conducive to adapting forests to changes. Operational silvicultural activities should focus on ensuring the resilience and adaptation of forests to future environmental conditions. Modern silviculture offers activities that fall within the scope of contemporary close-to-nature silviculture practices. However, some of the currently applied practices will require review and modification to be applicable under new conditions. This review also identifies the need to fill knowledge gaps in order to develop more effective and flexible adaptation strategies to foster sustainable forest development and, thus, sustainable forestry.

Sustainable Forest Development in the Digital Era: The Impact of Internet Use on the Happiness of Forest Farmers’ Families in Ecologically Fragile Ethnic Areas of China

In the policy arena of the rapid development of China’s digital village, understanding how internet use enhances the happiness of forest farmers’ families holds theoretical and practical significance for promoting the protection of the ecological environment and the sustainable development of forests. This study utilizes survey data from 2023 on forest farmers in ecologically fragile ethnic areas in China. Based on sustainability, a five-dimensional evaluation index system for the happiness of forest farmers’ families has been constructed. First, the CRITIC-TOPSIS model is employed to calculate the happiness scores of forest farming households. Subsequently, the Tobit model and the mediation effect model are applied to examine and analyze the influencing factors and mechanisms of internet usage on the happiness of forest farmers’ families. The study finds that, first, an increase of one unit in terms of internet use is associated with a 0.031-unit increase in the happiness of forest farmers’ families, and that education, social perception, and policy perception all have a positive effect on the happiness of forest farmers’ families. Second, the mechanism of action suggests that internet use significantly increases forest farmers’ families’ happiness through subjective class identity. Third, further heterogeneity analyses revealed that internet use contributed to the happiness of forest farmers’ families in the male group, the low human capital group, and the group with an ecological forest ranger in the family. Therefore, it is necessary to strengthen the construction of digital rural infrastructure and develop new models such as digital forestry; cultivate and introduce specialized digital talents in rural areas and enhance the digital literacy of forestry farmers; and assist forestry farmers in establishing class identity concepts and social values conducive to the sustainable development of forests and implement ecological values in production practices, thereby improving the happiness of forest farmers’ families.

Effects of Understory Vegetation Conversion on Soil Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Soil C and N Pools in Chinese Hickory Plantation Forests

Forest management, especially understory vegetation conversion, significantly affects soil greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and soil C and N pools. However, it remains unclear what effect renovating understory vegetation has on GHG emissions and soil C and N pools in plantations. This study investigates the impact of renovating understory vegetation on these factors in Chinese hickory (Carya cathayensis Sarg) plantation forests. Different understory renovation modes were used in a 12-month field experiment: a safflower camellia (SC) (Camellia chekiangoleosa Hu) planting density of 600 plants ha−1 and wild rape (WR) (Brassica napus L.) strip sowing (UM1); SC 600 plants ha−1 and WR scatter sowing (UM2); SC 1200 plants ha−1 and WR strip sowing (UM3); SC 1200 plants ha−1 and WR scatter sowing (UM4); and removal of the understory vegetation layer (CK). The results showed that understory vegetation modification significantly increased soil CO2 and emission fluxes and decreased soil CH4 uptake fluxes (p &lt; 0.01). The understory vegetation transformation significantly improved soil labile carbon and labile nitrogen pools (p &lt; 0.01). This study proposes that understory vegetation conversion can bolster soil carbon sinks, preserve soil fertility, and advance sustainable development of Chinese hickory plantation forests.

Anthropogenic impact on stability of forest crops development of silver birch Betula pendula Roth in the green zone of Astana

Anthropogenic impact on stability of forest crops development of silver birch Betula pendula Roth in the green zone of Astana

Height growth and biomass partitioning during secondary succession differ among forest light strata and successional guilds in a tropical rainforest

In closed‐canopy systems globally, plants exhibit intense competition for light, prioritizing vertical growth to attain elevated positions within the canopy. Light competition is especially intense in tropical rainforests because of their dense shaded stands, and during forest succession because of concomitant changes in vertical light profiles. We evaluated how the height growth of individual tree differs among forest light strata (canopy, sub‐canopy and understorey) and successional guilds (early, mid‐ and late successional species) during secondary succession in a Mexican rainforest. Fourteen secondary forest stands differing in time since agricultural abandonment (1–25 years) were monitored for seven consecutive years. For each stand and census year we estimated relative light intensity (RLI) for each height and categorized trees into forest light strata: understorey (RLI ≦ 33.3%), sub‐canopy (33.3% ≦ RLI ≦ 66.6%) and canopy (RLI ≧ 66.6%), and into successional guilds based on the literature. We estimated two measures of height growth: absolute height growth (HGabs, cm year−1) calculated as the difference in tree height between two consecutive censuses, and biomass partitioning to height growth (HGbp, in kg kg−1 × 100) calculated as the percentage of total aboveground biomass growth partitioned to height growth. Earlier in succession, trees for all strata had greater HGabs and HGbp, resulting in rapid vertical forest development. HGabs was fastest for canopy trees, followed by sub‐canopy and understorey trees. These differences in HGabs among strata, combined with their inter‐specific variation and continuous recruitment of small individuals, lead to a rapid differentiation in tree sizes and increase stand structural heterogeneity. HGbp was greater for understorey and sub‐canopy trees than for canopy trees, reflecting ontogenetic changes in the light competition strategy from growth to persistence. With succession, both HGabs and HGbp decreased, most strongly for canopy trees, probably because of an increased exposure to drought stress. These successional changes stabilize stand size structure and reduce the rate of development.

Plant-soil interactions alter nitrogen and phosphorus dynamics in an advancing subarctic treeline.

Treelines advance due to climate warming. The impacts of this vegetation shift on plant-soil nutrient cycling are still uncertain, yet highly relevant as nutrient availability stimulates tree growth. Here, we investigated nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) in plant and soil pools along two tundra-forest transects on Kola Peninsula, Russia, with a documented elevation shift of birch-dominated treeline by 70 m during the last 50 years. Results show that although total N and P stocks in the soil-plant system did not change with elevation, their distribution was significantly altered. With the transition from high-elevation tundra to low-elevation forest, P stocks in stones decreased, possibly reflecting enhanced weathering. In contrast, N and P stocks in plant biomass approximately tripled and available P and N in the soil increased fivefold toward the forest. This was paralleled by decreasing carbon (C)-to-nutrient ratios in foliage and litter, smaller C:N:P ratios in microbial biomass, and lower enzymatic activities related to N and P acquisition in forest soils. An incubation experiment further demonstrated manifold higher N and P net mineralization rates in litter and soil in forest compared to tundra, likely due to smaller C:N:P ratios in decomposing organic matter. Overall, our results show that forest expansion increases the mobilization of available nutrients through enhanced weathering and positive plant-soil feedback, with nutrient-rich forest litter releasing greater amounts of N and P upon decomposition. While the low N and P availability in tundra may retard treeline advances, its improvement toward the forest likely promotes tree growth and forest development.

Structure, floristic composition, and distribution of swamp forests across a white‐water flood‐plain in the Colombian Amazon

AbstractQuestionsThe fluvial dynamics of meandering white‐water rivers of Amazonia drive vegetation primary succession. Directional successional processes have been recorded for the seasonal várzea forests that occupy well‐drained soils on levees and point bars across the spatial gradient of the flood‐plains. However, the types of forests occupying the swampy depressions interspersed between the point bars and their distribution along the flood‐plain's spatial gradient are poorly understood. Here, we aimed to unravel the spatial patterns of swamp forests along the sequence defined by an axis perpendicular to the river and the relationship with edaphic and spatial factors.LocationThe flood‐plains of the middle Caquetá River basin, Colombian Amazonia.MethodsForest types were identified by cluster analysis performed on 42 square plots (33 m × 33 m) set in poorly drained depressions of the flood‐plain. Floristic composition and vegetation structure as response data, and edaphic and spatial variables as predictors, were analyzed through partial redundancy analysis (pRDA). The effect of geographic position was included by using the first two axes of a principal coordinates of neighbor matrix analysis as conditional factors in the pRDA.ResultsThe three identified swamp forest types were not arranged along a directional spatial pattern. Permanent várzea forests, closest to the river, showed the greatest diversity and alluvial sediment input. Oxandrales, furthest from the river, dominated by Oxandra polyantha, showed the greatest tree density, basal area and soil sand content, and received additional flooding from black‐water streams. Cananguchales, dominated by Mauritia flexuosa, exhibited the highest dominance and soil organic matter layer thickness. Distribution of the permanent várzea and oxandrales was relatively constrained by the distance to the river, whereas that of the cananguchales was not.ConclusionsFlooding dynamics delay vegetation development of the swamp forests in permanent várzea and oxandrales. Cananguchales keep accumulating organic matter, becoming ombrotrophic peats after isolation from the river flooding influence. The swamp forests across these flood‐plains are far from being arranged along a linear sequence.

Assessment of revenue loss from illegal logging in Ghana’s informal timber sector

This study estimated stumpage, Social Responsibility Agreement (SRA) and carbon revenue loss from Ghana’s informal timber sector. Secondary data on confiscated timber were collected from 13 District Forest offices from 2020 to 2022. The timber species volumes were computed with their corresponding stumpage, SRA, and potential carbon revenue. The results indicate that US$ 14,670.73 was lost as stumpage revenue between 2020 and 2022 in the study Forest Districts. SRA revenu e of US$ 733.54 originally destined for the development of forest fringe communities was also lost. For the study period, the highest potential carbon revenue loss (US$ 37,572) was recorded in the year 2020. The findings have implications for the country’s forest sector emission reduction target under the nationally determined contributions (NDCs) and the realization of carbon revenue from the mandatory and voluntary markets. One key way to improve the forest revenue system is to address illegal logging as it is widespread in the country and contributes to the decline in stumpage revenue, which is one of the main sources of revenue for forest management and development at the local level.

The Flexibility of Sengon Agroforestry in Small-Scale Forest Development in Indonesia

Small-scale forests (SSF) are essential to the community’s ecological, social, and economic aspects. The tree species that many people choose to develop in small-scale forests is sengon. Sengon has various advantages and can be developed in agroforestry with various plants. The research question in this study is how flexible the sengon agroforestry pattern is in Small-Scale Forest Development in Indonesia? The study aimed to determine the flexibility of sengon agroforestry in small-scale forests and the added value of small-scale forests from the economic and ecological aspects. The study was conducted using a systematic review. The results show that small-scale forest development with an agroforestry pattern can diversify income sources from the same land management, thus providing a sustainable income. The sengon agroforestry pattern in small-scale forests can be made with various types of plants (a) woody trees, (b) food crops, (c) plantation crops, (d) horticultural crops, (e) medicinal plants and (f) animal feed crops. Small-scale forest agroforestry patterns can provide economic, ecological, and social benefits. By knowing various alternative agroforestry cropping patterns, communities will be more motivated to improve their small-scale forest management to increase their economy.

Valuing hybrid engineering approach: ecosystem and structural based DRR using InVEST model of coastal zone Sikka Flores-Literature Review

The effectiveness and long-term viability of implementing eco-DRR are heavily influenced by the regional context, including factors such as geographical locations, circumstances, and features of risks. The implementation of eco-DRR measures in coastal areas is effectively mitigating the hazards posed by high waves and other hydro-meteorological events, including storm surges, erosion, and coastal floods. The study was carried out within the framework of mangrove forest development as a means of combined protection and hard structural intervention. The success and efficacy of this endeavor rely on various circumstances, such as the magnitude of the large waves and the characteristics of the nearshore bathymetry, which dictate the extent to which the waves reach the coastline beach. In order to achieve optimal effectiveness and provide prompt safeguarding, it is necessary to employ a hybrid approach that combines ecosystem-based disaster risk reduction (DRR) methods with physical structures. This is because non-structural measures, such as ecosystems, inherently require time to grow and are highly susceptible to destruction from waves, rock debris, and water currents. Nevertheless, the ’hybrid approach’ or amalgamation must be formulated in a manner that does not engender novel or distinct dangers in various areas. This study seeks to conduct a comparative analysis of studies on Eco-DRR (Ecological Disaster Risk Reduction) focusing on high waves and other hydrometeorological risks in coastal areas. The objective is to develop a hybrid model that combines Eco-DRR and engineering effectiveness evaluation for disaster risk management, specifically for the Sikka Flores coastline area.