Desirable Difficulties Research Articles

메타인지, 학습판단 및 학습전략 사용정도가 중학교 과학 학업성취에 미치는 영향

The purpose of this study is to determine the extent to which metacognition(MC), judgments of learning(the gap score between predicted and actual = illusion score, IS), and the degree of usage in learning strategies predict actual scores. A total of 152 middle school students were asked to predict their scores. The students were divided into quartiles based on their actual scores. The differences in MC, IS, and the use of learning strategies were analyzed for each level. In addition, to check the extent to which MC, IS, and the use of learning strategies predict actual scores, the correlation between each variable was examined, and multiple regression analyses were conducted for each of the four learning strategies. The results of the study showed that there were significant differences in MC and IS by achievement level. Among the learning strategies used, 'practice testing(PT)' and 'self-explanation (S-E)' were significantly different by achievement level. Actual scores were positively correlated with MC and negatively correlated with IS, and there was a significant negative correlation between IS and MC. The use of the four learning strategies showed a significant positive correlation with actual scores only for PT and S-E, and a significant correlation with IS only for S-E, while the correlation with MC was not significant only for 'rereading(RR)'. The use of 'highlighting/underlining' and RR did not function as predictive variables. However, PT significantly positively predicted actual scores because the degree of its use was relatively high among excellent students due to the experience of 'desirable difficulties' during learning.

When and how do peers stimulate engaging in desirable difficulties: Student perspectives on the effectiveness of supplemental instruction

Supplemental instruction, also known as Peer Assisted Study Sessions (SI-PASS), is a well-established form of peer learning that has been implemented in higher education institutions across the globe and that coincides with learning gains for participants. While the effects on learning gains have been extensively studied with quasi-experiments, the underlying mechanisms that make SI-PASS effective are less well understood. This study explored what benefits students thought SI-PASS offered and through which mechanisms. We studied this by interviewing 14 students who participated in SI-PASS during a field experiment that reliably found a significant impact of SI-PASS on performance. The students were asked to expand on if and why they thought SI-PASS was effective. Thematic analysis and independent coding indicated an interplay of three main drivers. SI-PASS was experienced as effective because it stimulated the use of effective study techniques and social learning. These drivers were facilitated and enhanced by a pedagogical climate that lowered the threshold to engage in collaborative learning and effective study techniques. These findings could help pinpoint what elements should be highlighted during the preparation of SI-leaders and what aspects should be monitored and tested when implementing or studying SI-PASS.

Review of studies on the disfluency effect: Can a font change improve memorization and educational outcomes?

This review article is devoted to the disfluency effect, which is observed as an improvement in the memorization of information and subsequent educational results due to reduced processing fluency. According to the basic explanation of the disfluency effect, if information is written illegibly, the learner senses complexity, or disfluency, which leads to a deeper processing of information. Traditionally, the disfluency effect is considered from the perspective of Bjork’s desirable difficulties approach and Sweller’s cognitive load theory. In this article, we pay attention to these concepts and also discuss the main studies and meta-analyses devoted to the effect. It is worth noting that the existence of the disfluency effect is not seen as indisputable and raises doubts among the authors of the review and other colleagues. As indicated, a significant number of studies do not detect the effect; for this reason, possible moderators influencing its manifestation are also considered. A separate section of the review is devoted to research of the Sans Forgetica font. The font was specially created to be disfluent, and its developers proceeded from the assumption that the disfluency effect really exists. This review article is addressed to a wide range of readers, and it may be of interest to both specialists in the field of metacognition and for pedagogical practitioners.

Getting the balance just right: Desirable difficulty in health professions education.

Drawing on Nelson and Eliasz' exploration of 'Desirable Difficulties', Kinsey describes its application to workplace training models in Health Professions Education.

Distinctive Sans Forgetica font does not benefit memory accuracy in the DRM paradigm

A common method used by memory scholars to enhance retention is to make materials more challenging to learn-a benefit termed desirable difficulties. Recently, researchers have investigated the efficacy of Sans Forgetica, a perceptually disfluent/distinctive font which may increase processing effort required at study and enhance memory as a result. We examined the effects of Sans Forgetica relative to a standard control font (Arial) on both correct memory and associative memory errors using the Deese/Roediger-McDermott (DRM) false memory paradigm, to evaluate Sans Forgetica effects on overall memory accuracy. Across four experiments, which included nearly 300 participants, Sans Forgetica was found to have no impact on correct or false memory of DRM lists relative to a standard Arial control font, regardless of whether font type was manipulated within or between subjects or whether memory was assessed via free recall or recognition testing. Our results indicate that Sans Forgetica is ineffective for improving memory accuracy even when accounting for associative memory errors.

How to Promote Lasting Learning in Schools

Abstract. Creating lasting knowledge is an important goal of education. But how much do students retain what they have learned in school beyond the next class assignment? Is school instruction suitable for creating lasting knowledge and skills? And what can teachers do to foster the learning of lasting knowledge? We present a selective overview of research on these questions. The two theoretical strands that deal with lasting learning are meaningful learning and desirable difficulties in learning. We propose combining ideas from these two approaches to develop a comprehensive theoretical account of lasting learning and sketch questions that research should clarify to enable such a theory.

Methods of Training to Overcome Distraction Via Diminished Reality

Combining theories of learning and a novel technology, diminished reality (DR), may aid in the creation of training for complex tasks in distracting environments. DR can de-emphasize elements of an environment to improve attention and there may be a benefit in extending these effects to training methods. One method of diminishment, called emphasis training, aids learning by directing attention to a specific part of a task, rather than the whole task, which may improve performance. However, high initial performance can hinder learning, suggesting that “desirable difficulties,” such as outside stressors during a task, are key to designing training that scaffolds learners to be able to work with distractions. However, there may be a level of distraction that is an impediment to learning. We hypothesize that using DR to gradually introduce desirable difficulties will train the operator to perform in distracting environments, enhance long term retention, and promote transfer of skills.

How variability shapes learning and generalization.

Learning is using past experiences to inform new behaviors and actions. Because all experiences are unique, learning always requires some generalization. An effective way of improving generalization is to expose learners to more variable (and thus often more representative) input. More variability tends to make initial learning more challenging, but eventually leads to more general and robust performance. This core principle has been repeatedly rediscovered and renamed in different domains (e.g., contextual diversity, desirable difficulties, variability of practice). Reviewing this basic result as it has been formulated in different domains allows us to identify key patterns, distinguish between different kinds of variability, discuss the roles of varying task-relevant versus irrelevant dimensions, and examine the effects of introducing variability at different points in training.

Learning to Learn: The importance of embracing desirable difficulties

When my children were young and wanted to play in the AYSO soccer league, I decided to train to be a referee. I took all the required classes, studied hard, and passed the written certification exam. At my first match, dressed in my uniform, I strode into the middle of the field with the players all gathered around—and suddenly realized I couldn’t recall how to start the game.

Lag effects in grammar learning: A desirable difficulties perspective

AbstractThis paper examined lag effects in the learning of second language (L2) grammar. Moreover, following the Desirable Difficulty Framework for L2 practice, the present study investigated whether lag effects could be explained by other sources of difficulty. Using digital flashcards, 117 English language learners (aged 10–18) learned two grammatical structures over two different sessions at a 1-day or 7-day intersession interval (ISI). Learners’ performance was analyzed at two retention intervals (RIs) of 7 and 28 days, respectively. Linguistic difficulty was compared by examining two different structures, while learner-related difficulty was analyzed by comparing learners who differed in terms of age, proficiency, and time required to complete the training. Results showed no main effect of ISI, a main effect of RI, and a small but significant ISI × RI interaction. Linguistic difficulty and age did not interact with ISI or RI. However, longer lags led to significantly higher scores for faster learners and learners of higher proficiency, while shorter lags promoted significantly higher scores for slower learners and learners of lower proficiency. The findings provide some support for the Desirable Difficulty Framework in its potential to explain L2 lag effects.

Who wants to learn harder? The relationship between conservatism and liberalism, desirable difficulties, and academic learning

Previous work has shown that challenging learning strategies like desirable difficulties improve long-term learning. Nonetheless, because they might be regarded as strict and demanding learning strategies, they should not be perceived as positive by everyone. They should, however, fit conservative political attitudes since those are, among others, positively correlated with individuals’ need for order and structure as well as with challenging learning environments. Hence, we hypothesized conservative political attitudes to be correlated with more positive attitudes towards desirable difficulties, towards the use of desirable difficulties at school, towards the preferred difficulty of the learning process, and towards deeper learning strategies. We conducted three online studies assessing US American students’ political attitudes and their attitudes towards such difficult and challenging learning strategies: Study 1 found correlations among more conservative political attitudes and more positive attitudes towards difficult and challenging learning strategies, whereas Study 2 found no significant linkages among these variables. Study 3 then showed that a more conservative political attitude and favorable ratings of Republican politicians, but also more favorable ratings of Democratic politicians were linked to more positive attitudes towards our dependent variables. Self-reported interest in and importance of politics were also positively correlated with positive attitudes towards difficult learning. Our results indicate that students’ political attitudes are generally linked to positive attitudes towards difficult and challenging learning strategies and are therefore important individual characteristics regarding applications and perceptions of these learning strategies. Future work focusing on these relationships, on causal effects, and on further related variables is valuable.

Benefits of desirable difficulties: comparing the influence of mixed practice to that of categorized sets of questions on students’ problem-solving performance in chemistry

The questions in the practice assignments given to students in the form of worksheets or other formats are often grouped by chapter, topic, or concepts. There is a great emphasis on categorization. Most of the end-of-chapter problems in chemistry textbooks are organized by sections. Although this was done with the intention of helping students navigate the assignments more easily and practice in order, it is not what they are expected to do during the tests. There is a mismatch between what they practice on and how they are tested. The goal of this study is to examine the influence of the structure of the assignments on students’ problem-solving performances. Two groups of students from chemistry classes were recruited to participate in this study. Each group had the same length of practice and identical questions with only one difference. The experimental group had assignments with mixed organization of questions, while the control group had traditional assignments with the questions organized around chapters and topics. Students completed three two-hour long problem-solving sessions during the weekends. Evaluation of their progress consisted of their solutions obtained from one pre-test and three post-tests, with one given after each problem-solving session. The study revealed that students in the experimental group increased their problem-solving success more than those in the control group starting from the first intervention. The achievement gap widened as the study progressed. It is recommended that educators and textbook publishers create and utilize assignments that contain more mixed questions on different topics and chapters.

Is There a (Dis-)Fluency Effect in Learning With Handwritten Instructional Texts? Evidence From Three Studies

The disfluency effect postulates that intentionally inserted desirable difficulties can have a beneficial effect on learning. Nevertheless, there is an ongoing discussion about the emergence of this effect since studies could not replicate this effect or even found opposite effects. To clarify boundary effects of the disfluency effect and to investigate potential social effects of disfluency operationalized through handwritten material, three studies (N1 = 97; N2 = 102; N3 = 103) were carried out. In all three experiments, instructional texts were manipulated in terms of disfluency (computerized font vs. handwritten font). Learning outcomes and cognitive load were measured in all experiments. Furthermore, metacognitive variables (Experiment 2 and 3) and social presence (Experiment 3) were measured. Results were ambiguous, indicating that element interactivity (complexity or connectedness of information within the learning material) of the learning material is a boundary condition that determines the effects of disfluency. When element interactivity is low, disfluency had a positive effect on learning outcomes and germane processes. When element interactivity increases, disfluency had negative impacts on learning efficiency (Experiment 2 and 3) and extraneous load (Experiment 3). In contrast to common explanations of the disfluency effect, a disfluent font had no metacognitive benefits. Social processes did not influence learning with disfluent material as well.

Is this going to be on the test? Test expectancy moderates the disfluency effect with sans forgetica.

Presenting information in a perceptually disfluent format sometimes enhances memory. Recent work examining 1 type of perceptual disfluency manipulation, Sans Forgetica typeface, has yielded discrepant findings; some studies find support for the idea that the disfluent typeface improves memory whereas others do not. The current study examined a boundary condition that determines when disfluency is and is not beneficial to learning to explore this discrepancy. Specifically, we investigated whether knowledge about an upcoming test (high test expectancy) versus not (low test expectancy) helps clarify when mnemonic benefits arise for perceptually disfluent stimuli. In Experiment 1 (preregistered, N = 231), we found that Sans Forgetica is a memory-improving desirable difficulty, but only when there was no expectation of a final test. In Experiment 2 (preregistered, N = 232), we conceptually replicated the Sans Forgetica effect using a cued-recall test. In Experiment 3 (preregistered, N = 232), we ruled out a time-on-task explanation while replicating the results of Experiment 2. Though these data provide some evidence of San Forgetica's mnemonic benefits, caution should be taken in interpreting these results. Not only were the effect sizes moderate, but low test expectancy may not be realistically achievable in actual educational contexts. Though more research is warranted, we echo our prior arguments that students wanting to remember more and forget less should stick to other, more empirically supported desirable difficulties. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

A quantitative experiment setup for testing the effect of desirable difficulties on teaching robotics

A quantitative experiment setup for testing the effect of desirable difficulties on teaching robotics

Sans Forgetica is Not the “Font” of Knowledge: Disfluent Fonts are Not Always Desirable Difficulties

Subsequent recall is improved if students try to recall target material during study (self-testing) versus simply re-reading it. This effect is consistent with the notion of “desirable difficulties.” If the learning experience involves difficulties that induce extra effort, then retention may be improved. Not all difficulties are desirable, however. Difficult-to-read ( disfluent) typefaces yield inconsistent results. A new disfluent font, Sans Forgetica, was developed and alleged to promote deeper processing and improve learning. Although it would be invaluable if changing the font could enhance learning, the few studies on Sans Forgetica have been inconsistent, and focused on short retention intervals (0–5 minutes). We investigated a 1-week interval to increase practical relevance and because some benefits only manifest after a delay. A testing-effect manipulation was also included. Students ( N = 120) learned two passages via different methods (study then re-study vs. study then self-test). Half the students saw the passages in Times New Roman and half in Sans Forgetica. Recall test scores were higher for passages learned via self-testing than restudying, but the effect of font and the interaction were nonsignificant. We suggest that disfluency increases the local (orthographic) processing effort on each word but slowed reading might impair relational processing across words. In contrast, testing and generation effect manipulations often engage relational processing (question: answer; cue: target)—yielding subsequent benefits on cued-recall tests. We elaborate this suggestion to reconcile conflicting results across studies.

Stop sanitizing project management education: Embracing Desirable Difficulties to enhance practice-relevant online learning

By resisting the temptation to “sanitize” project management education, we show how embracing unpredictability and authenticity can enhance learning. In response to COVID-19 restrictions, we moved an interactive role-play online and explored the resultant learning through analysis of student performance and students’ individual reflections. Findings suggest that the online role-play boosted learning by exposing students to a challenging environment, which included tasks that stretched their capabilities and thus enhanced the level of “Desirable Difficulties”. Drawing on the concepts of Desirable Difficulties and “role-play-as-rehearsal”, we discuss the benefits of formative “testing” and propose a new concept: “role-play-as-testing”. Additionally, benefits to learning were attributed to the online setting, which reflects the increasing virtualization of practice. We hope to inspire other educators to embrace Desirable Difficulties and resist the temptation to sanitize project management education to create opportunities for future project leaders to test their learning in authentic settings.

Homework questions designed to require higher-order cognitive skills in an undergraduate animal physiology course did not produce desirable difficulties, testing effects, or improvements in information retention.

Studies show that retrieval practices such as homework assignments that are completed during the encoding phase of learning benefit knowledge acquisition and retention. In addition, desirable difficulties, which are strategies that intentionally create a greater challenge during initial learning to enhance encoding and retrieval pathways, also benefit learning long term. Our objective was to determine whether weekly homework questions intended to create desirable difficulties by requiring higher-order cognitive skills (HOCS) benefited students' long-term retention of physiology concepts compared to questions designed to require lower-order cognitive skills (LOCS). Undergraduate students in a junior-level animal physiology course were presented information during weekly laboratory periods, and then required to complete retrieval practices in the form of online homework assignments 5 d after each lab. Homework questions were formatted per Bloom's Taxonomy to require HOCS (i.e., level 4 or 5) or LOCS (i.e., level 1 or 2). Information retention was assessed the next week via performance on an in-class quiz and again at semesters' end via performance on a final practical exam. We observed no differences in performance on the in-class quiz or final practical exam between students randomly assigned to complete homework with HOCS questions compared to LOCS questions. However, students that received homework with HOCS questions had decreased (P < 0.05) performance scores on 9 out of the 11 homework assignments compared to those receiving homework with LOCS questions. These findings indicate that desirable difficulties were not created by our HOCS homework questions because students receiving these more difficult retrieval practices did not achieve equal success on them. As a result, this attempt to create variations in cognitive demand did not enhance retention of knowledge in this study.

Balancing Collaboration and Cognitive Load to Optimize Individual and Group Desirable Difficulties

We sought to identify factors that optimize individual learning in complex, technology-enhanced learning environments. Undergraduates viewed tutorials and played a simulation-based game either alone or in groups and in either high or low cognitive load sequences and later took tests measuring comprehension of tutorials and transfer of computer networking skills. A cognitive load by collaboration interaction was found for both immediate and delayed transfer measures, but not comprehension measures. Students working in groups performed best under high cognitive load whereas students working individually performed best under low cognitive load. These findings support the notions of optimal individual and group cognitive load and have implications for leveraging technology to design learning environments that allow students to collaborate and maximize individual learning.

Desirable Difficulties in Language Learning? How Talker Variability Impacts Artificial Grammar Learning.

Contending with talker variability has been found to lead to processing costs but also benefits by focusing learners on invariant properties of the signal, indicating that talker variability acts as a desirable difficulty. That is, talker variability may lead to initial costs followed by long-term benefits for retention and generalization. Adult participants learned an artificial grammar affording learning of multiple components in two experiments varying in difficulty. They learned from one, two, or eight talkers and were tested at three time points. The eight-talker condition did not impact learning. The two-talker condition negatively impacted some aspects of learning, but only under more difficult conditions. Generalization of the grammatical dependency was difficult. Thus, we discovered that high and limited talker variability can differentially impact artificial grammar learning. However, talker variability did not act as a desirable difficulty in the current paradigm as the few evidenced costs were not related to long-term benefits.