Abstract
The disfluency effect postulates that intentionally inserted desirable difficulties can have a beneficial effect on learning. Nevertheless, there is an ongoing discussion about the emergence of this effect since studies could not replicate this effect or even found opposite effects. To clarify boundary effects of the disfluency effect and to investigate potential social effects of disfluency operationalized through handwritten material, three studies (N1 = 97; N2 = 102; N3 = 103) were carried out. In all three experiments, instructional texts were manipulated in terms of disfluency (computerized font vs. handwritten font). Learning outcomes and cognitive load were measured in all experiments. Furthermore, metacognitive variables (Experiment 2 and 3) and social presence (Experiment 3) were measured. Results were ambiguous, indicating that element interactivity (complexity or connectedness of information within the learning material) of the learning material is a boundary condition that determines the effects of disfluency. When element interactivity is low, disfluency had a positive effect on learning outcomes and germane processes. When element interactivity increases, disfluency had negative impacts on learning efficiency (Experiment 2 and 3) and extraneous load (Experiment 3). In contrast to common explanations of the disfluency effect, a disfluent font had no metacognitive benefits. Social processes did not influence learning with disfluent material as well.
Highlights
When managing complex and challenging learning tasks in multimedia environments, instructors should be aware that a high cognitive load hampers learning progress (Sweller et al, 2019)
This study focuses on investigating the disfluency effect operationalized through a handwritten text font
Since 5th and 6th graders often study with handwritten texts, disfluency through handwritten fonts can be effectively included in learning materials
Summary
When managing complex and challenging learning tasks in multimedia environments, instructors should be aware that a high cognitive load hampers learning progress (Sweller et al, 2019). In this vein, research on designing appropriate instructional materials and procedures for multimedia learning has gained a lot of attention over the years. There is an ongoing research on positive effects of designing learning material in a way that it is intentionally difficult to perceive. The intentional insertion of disfluency, in this case, a difficult-to-read font can improve memorization skills because of metacognitive processes. This study focuses on investigating the disfluency effect operationalized through a handwritten text font. Three experiments outline the role of disfluent materials and causal mechanisms of text design on learning processes
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