Desalination Brine Research Articles

Unveiling the influence of MTMS:TEOS ratios in silica layer membranes enhanced by cetyltrimethylammonium bromide

Silica-based thin-layer membranes, meticulously coated on alumina tubes, were synthesized from methyltrimethoxysilane (MTMS) and tetraethylorthosilicate (TEOS), which were further modified with cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) and subsequently deployed for the brine desalination. Comprehensive characterization of the membrane materials was conducted employing Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectrophotometry, Gas Sorption Analysis (GSA), Thermogravimetric Analysis combined with Differential Scanning Calorimetry (TGA-DSC), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), and an optical tensiometer. A detailed investigation was executed on the effects of varying MTMS:TEOS mole ratios, 10:90 (STL-1), 25:75 (STL-2), 50:50 (STL-3), 75:25 (STL-4), and 90:10 (STL-5), elucidating their impact on the structural attributes and functionalities of silica. These parameters were subsequently correlated with their respective desalination efficacies. The FTIR analysis underscored an evident association between the escalation in cyclic siloxane and methyl groups vis-à-vis increasing MTMS concentrations. An elevated MTMS content conferred the silica matrix with diminished porosity, augmented thermal resilience, a more refined surface, and pronounced hydrophobicity, albeit at the cost of reduced surface area and pore volume. Remarkably, the STL-5 silica membrane manifested optimum desalination metrics, boasting a salt rejection percentage of 99.99 % and a water flux rate of 5.61 kg m−2 h−1, thereby accentuating the intrinsic trade-off existing between salt rejection and water flux.

Boosting sustainable water production by upstream integration of desalination with saltworks in the Mediterranean region

SEArcularMINE is an EU project that is focused on mineral extraction from saltwork bitterns, adopting a circular approach. Within this context, this work shows the possibility of completing the circular scheme with an upwind integration of seawater desalination that can provide freshwater to the local community but also use the brine reject to feed the saltwork in order to increase its productivity. In this study, a specific case of a natural saltwork in Trapani (Italy) is presented, assuming to place a desalination plant very close to the saltworks, so that the brine can be sent there without an additional energy input. After choosing the best desalination technology, demonstrating that Reverse Osmosis (RO) is more suitable than thermal processes from both economic and environmental point of view, the details of the RO design are presented. Then, preliminary calculations using a simple model for the saltwork ponds have been performed, showing that the brine feed can either increase the salt productivity by more than 50% or that the ponds surface can be reduced by more than 40%. Finally, evaporation experiments on desalination brines have been performed to demonstrate that no changes in salt quality occur compared to the standard seawater feed.

Reclaimed seawater discharge – Desalination brine treatment and resource recovery system

With the proliferation of reverse osmosis technology, seawater reverse osmosis desalination has been heralded as the solution to water scarcity for coastal regions. However, the large volume of desalination brine produced may pose an adverse environmental impact when directly discharged into the sea and result in energy wastage as the seawater pumped out is dumped back into the sea. Recently, zero liquid discharge has been extensively studied as a way to eliminate the aquatic ecotoxicity impact completely, despite being expensive and having a high carbon footprint. In this work, we propose a new strategy towards the treatment of brine to seawater level for disposal, dubbed reclaimed seawater discharge (RSD). This process is coupled with existing resource recovery techniques and waste alkali CO2 capture processes to produce an economically viable waste treatment process with minimal CO2 emissions. In this work, we placed significant focus on the electrolysis of brine, which simultaneously lowers the salinity of the desalination brine (56.0 ± 2.1 g/L) to seawater level (32.0 ± 1.4 g/L), generates alkali brine from seawater (pH 13.6) to remove impurities in brine (Mg2+ and Ca2+ to below ppm level), and recovers magnesium hydroxide, calcium carbonate, chlorine, bromine, and hydrogen gas as valuable resources. The RSD is further chemically dechlorinated and neutralised to pH 7.3 to be safe to discharge into the sea. The excess alkali brine is used to capture additional CO2 in the form of bicarbonates, achieving net abatement in climate change impact (9.90 CO2 e/m3) after product carbon abatements are accounted.

Isolation and characterization of cellulose from date palm waste using rejected brine solution

This study introduces a new and waste-to-waste treatment approach to isolate cellulose from lignocellulosic biomass. Rejected brine solution from desalination plant was utilized to remove noncellulosic components from the date palm leaves. Free chlorine available in rejected brine solution was responsible for the separation of cellulose from lignocellulosic structure. The proximate analysis revealed that the isolated cellulose exhibited a substantial volatile content of 83.70%, rendering it well-suited to produce bio-oil. Various other analytical techniques including FTIR, chemical composition analysis, proximate and ultimate analysis, X-ray diffraction (XRD), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) were employed to confirm the cellulose enrichment. Cellulose fibers with needle−shaped morphology were obtained. Cellulose fibers were having high thermal stability (Tonset = 250 ○C) and crystallinity index (64.75%) compared to raw waste (Tonset = 226 ○C; 53.58%). In addition, the activation energy (Ea) of both date palm leaves and isolated cellulose were investigated using the Coats−Redfern model−fitting method. The activation energy values obtained were 79.39 kJ/mol for date palm leaves and 103.27 kJ/mol for isolated cellulose. This research shows a completely new process for pretreatment of lignocellulosic wastes to isolate cellulose. This approach helps reduce the waste management cost associated with date palm waste and desalination plants to promote the concept of circular economy. Moreover, enriched cellulose derived from waste palm leaves using desalination brine presents sustainable options for eco−friendly packaging, textiles, biodegradable composites, and enhanced bio-oil production applications.

Performance of membrane distillation assisted crystallization and crystal characteristics for resource recovery from desalination brine

Membrane distillation crystallization (MDC) has been widely studied in recent year for its potential for resource recovery from desalination brine with high concentrations. In this study, crystal samples produced from a bench-scale MDC system have been analysed for crystal morphology, crystal purity and crystal size distribution (CSD). In addition, orthogonal fractional factorial (OFF) experimental design has been introduced to evaluate the influence of various operating conditions on the crystal size and CSD. Feed temperature (40 to 60 °C), crystallization time (60 to 180 min) and the feed composition have been used as the control factors. The results show that the MD in the MDC system maintains a consistent flux of 1.32 to 4.2 kg/m2·h across various feed compositions; higher feed temperatures led to the formation of larger crystal clusters, while longer crystallization time yielded more cubic-shaped crystals; an overall NaCl purity exceeding 99.08 % has been achieved throughout all the experiments; and the increased feed temperature and prolonged crystallization time results in a narrower CSD. The result of OFF experimental design identifies feed temperature as the dominant factor affecting crystal size and CSD. However, the presence of impurities in the feed water could pose challenge to the thermal stability and longevity of the membrane.

Desalination brines as a potential vector for CO2 sequestration in the deep sea

Freshwater scarcity, driven by population growth and climate change, is increasingly mitigated by seawater desalination, globally. As an energy-intensive process, desalination is a substantial source of atmospheric CO2. Nevertheless, desalination may hold a potential for ocean-based atmospheric carbon removal. Here we describe, for the first time, the carbonate chemistry of desalination brines near the submerged marine outfalls of a large desalination plant, their unique CO2 buffering capacity, and potential for deep sea carbon sequestration. We show that reverse osmosis acts as a carbon concentration factory and that the high-density brine plumes could create a vector for long-term CO2 removal to the deep sea below the seasonal thermocline. At present desalination capacity, we estimate that Desalination Assisted Carbon Concentration (DACC) and Carbon Dioxide Removal (CDR) could potentially remove 3.8 Mton CO2/year globally, with a negligible contribution to ocean acidification. This mechanism partially mitigates the high carbon print associated with desalination. SynopsisDesalination reject brines pose environmental challenges upon disposal to sea, but due to their unique properties, may become an opportunity for long-term carbon sequestration.

Nanofiltration and selective crystallisation as technologies for the recovery of chemicals from seawater desalination brine to be used as ingredients for Bio-based fertilisers

The majority of companies that operate desalination units produce significant quantities of brine, a hypersaline product whose disposal in the sea contributes to the degradation of local fauna and flora. The proposed process for the valorisation of seawater brine and recovery of high purity water consists of two precipitation steps for the recovery of Mg(OH)2 and CaCO3. After pH conditioning, the brine (without Mg2+ and Ca2+) is led to Nanofiltration unit for Na2SO4 separation from the NaCl - KCl rich stream. Monovalent salt stream is further concentrated by Multiple Effect Distillation evaporator and crystallizer and KCl is separated from NaCl by flotation using Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate as floating agent. The aforementioned micronutrients have readily been tested for their part in enhancing the agronomic performance of fertilising products, so they possess market potential to support local/national/European fertilisation purposes. Last but not least, such a nutrient recovery approach can ensure capital recovery within the expected time limitations of an investment and in some cases offset completely the treatment cost.

MgO-based cements – Current status and opportunities

The cement industry is a major contributor to the anthropogenic CO2 emissions, with about 8% of all emissions coming from this sector. The global cement and concrete association has set a goal to achieve net-zero CO2 concrete by 2050, with 45% of the reduction coming from alternatives to Portland cement, substitution, and carbon capture and utilization/storage (CCU/S) approaches. Magnesia-based cements offer a conceivable solution to this problem due to their potential for low-to-negative CO2 emissions (CCU/S) but also being alternatives to Portland cement. The sources of magnesia can come from magnesium silicates or desalination brines which are carbon free for raw-material-related emissions (cf. carbonated rocks). This opens up possibilities for low or even net-negative carbon emissions. However, research on magnesia-based cements is still in its early stages.
 In this paper, we summarize the current understanding of different MgO-based cements and their chemistries: magnesia oxysulfate cement, magnesia oxychloride cement, magnesia carbonate cement, and magnesia silicate cement. We also discuss relevant research needed for MgO-based cements and concretes including the issues relating to the low pH of these cements and suitability of steel reinforcement. Alternatives reinforcements, suitable admixtures, and durability studies are the most needed for the further development of MgO-based concretes to achieve a radical CO2 reduction in this industry. Additionally, techno-economic and life cycle assessments are also needed to assess the competition of raw materials and the produced binder or concrete with other solutions. Overall, magnesia-based cements are a promising emerging technology that requires further research and development to realize their potential in reducing CO2 emissions in the construction industry.

Nanofilament-Coated Superhydrophobic Membranes Show Enhanced Flux and Fouling Resistance in Membrane Distillation.

Membrane distillation (MD) is an important technique for brine desalination and wastewater treatment that may utilize waste or solar heat. To increase the distillation rate and minimize membrane wetting and fouling, we deposit a layer of polysiloxane nanofilaments on microporous membranes. In this way, composite membranes with multiscale pore sizes are created. The performance of these membranes in the air gap and direct contact membrane distillation was investigated in the presence of salt solutions, solutions containing bovine serum albumin, and solutions containing the surfactant sodium dodecyl sulfate. In comparison to conventional hydrophobic membranes, our multiscale porous membranes exhibit superior fouling resistance while attaining a higher distillation flux without using fluorinated compounds. This study demonstrates a viable method for optimizing MD processes for wastewater and saltwater treatment.

Pilot plant evaluation of membrane distillation for desalination of high-salinity brines

Membrane distillation (MD) is a hybrid thermal-membrane desalination process that can use either low-grade waste heat and/or solar energy with hydrophobic membranes to desalinate high-salinity brines and produce high quality distillate. A research consortium was launched to investigate the application of the MD process, at lab and pilot scale, for desalination of concentrated brines. Bench scale results showed the presence of antiscalants in the concentrated brines minimized the scale precipitation potential and offered stable membrane permeability performance. Various MD technologies were screened, and two suitable technologies were selected for field-testing. Pilot unit A was based on multi-effect vacuum showed a stable flux of 6.2 LMH with excellent salt rejection (> 99.9%) from the concentrated brine discharged from thermal desalination plant in Qatar. That pilot unit was also field tested on hypersaline groundwater in Texas (USA) to generate fresh water for reservoir fracking in unconventional oil production operations. The MD unit was coupled with humidification/dehumidification (HDH) unit to achieve zero liquid discharge (ZLD) for inland applications. The MD unit was operated at 40% recovery producing distillate of < 20 mg/L total dissolved solids (TDS) and observed a stable flux of 5 LMH. Key challenges that are critical for large-scale deployment of MD technology were identified at the end of the field-testing program. Finally, a review of active MD technologies was conducted to highlight recent promising developments for full-scale applications.

Making Nanofiber Membrane Stand on End to Construct Vertically Interfacial Evaporators for Efficient Solar Evaporation, Omnidirectional Solar Absorption, and Ultrahigh-Salinity Brine Desalination.

Solar-driven interfacial desalination is widely considered to be a promising technology to address the global water crisis. This study proposes a novel electrospun nanofiber-based all-in-one vertically interfacial solar evaporator endowed with a high steam generation rate, steady omnidirectional evaporation, and enduring ultrahigh-salinity brine desalination. In particular, the electrospun nanofiber is collected into the tubular structure, followed by spraying with a dense crosslinked poly(vinyl alcohol) film, which renders them sufficiently strong for the preparation of a vertically array evaporator. The integrated evaporator made an individual capillary as a unit to form multiple thermal localization interfaces and steam dissipation channels, realizing zone heating of water. Thus a high steam generation rate exceeding 4.0kgm-2h-1 in pure water is demonstrated even under omnidirectional sunlight, and outperforms existing evaporators. Moreover, salt ions in the photothermal layer can be effectively transported to the water in capillaries and subsequently exchanged with the bulk water due to the strong action of capillary force, which ensures an ultrahigh desalination rate (≈12.5kgm-2h-1 under 3 sun) in 25wt% concentration brine over 300min. As such, this work provides a meaningful roadmap for the development of state-of-the-art solar-driven interfacial desalination.

Bioinspired multi-scale core-spun yarn-based solar evaporator for ultra-efficient and durable high-salinity brine desalination

Solar-driven interfacial desalination has been considered a promising and green technology for relieving worldwide water shortage because of its zero carbon emission. However, salt accumulation during evaporation results in a significant reduction in solar evaporation performance and sustained service life. High-performance and long-term salt-rejecting solar evaporators are urgently desirable. Inspired by the rapid water transfer driven by leaf transpiration and the capillary pressure in woody plants, we developed electrospun polyacrylonitrile (PAN) @carbon nanotubes (CNTs) nanofiber/cotton core-spun yarn (PCCS yarn) based solar evaporator enabled by the multi-branch microchannels and sub-microchannels for ultra-efficient and durable high-salinity brine desalination. The optimal PCCS yarn-based solar evaporator exhibits a record-high evaporation rate of 3.46 kg m−2h−1 under one sun illumination among 2D evaporators. Meanwhile, an excellent and stable brine desalination rate of ∼2.75 kg m−2h−1 for 100 h continuous solar irradiation is achieved even in 20wt% NaCl solution. The above results are attributed to the massive micro evaporation surfaces formed between nanofibers, rapid water replenishment in the radius direction, and orientational fast water transport by Laplace pressure along and across the PCCS yarn. In addition, the continuous preparation of the core-spun yarn by the conjugated electrospinning technology and the complete fabric production process in the textile industry make it possible for the practical application of the PCCS yarn-based solar evaporator. This work promotes the development of high-performance, long-term and scalable solar desalination devices.

Pathways to magnesium supplementation of drinking water: An overview of the saline water conversion corporation experience

Magnesium (Mg) in drinking water is essential for human health, with low concentrations in drinking water being reported to be correlated with poor cardiovascular health outcomes. Based on the literature and suggestions that the World Health Organization would soon announce guidelines for Mg content of drinking water, the Saline Water Conversion Corporation (SWCC) announced specifications in October 2020 targeting 15–25 ppm of Mg in product water. SWCC produces approximately 6 million m3 of potable water daily for domestic and industrial use in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, so meeting this Mg target will require the allocation of significant resources. In this report the different approaches to adding Mg in post-treatment of the product water from the SWCC's network of desalination plants are reviewed in order to optimise the additional capital investment and ongoing operational expenses. The most cost-effective option is to mix produced water with groundwater containing Mg, but where this is not feasible the next most cost-effective method for achieving a 15 ppm target was assessed to be treating desalination brine with nanofiltration (NF) to generate a magnesium-rich brine fraction that can be mixed with produced water. A one-stage NF process can meet the 15 ppm Mg target only with levels of chloride and total dissolved solids exceeding regulatory maximums in the produced water, so a multi-stage NF process with intermediate dilution was designed. While this has a significantly higher capital expenditure and energy requirement than one-stage NF, at the cost of energy in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia it is still significantly less expensive than alternative approaches (0.009 USD/m3). This solution was implemented at an SWCC desalination plant on the Red Sea and has been delivering Mg-enriched water (∼15 ppm) to approximately 1.3 million people since May 2022 at an estimated additional operational cost of 0.007 USD per m3. For lower target levels of Mg supplementation (∼5 ppm), replacement of limestone with dolomite in post-treatment limestone contactors has been found to be a cost-effective process in plant-scale trials at another SWCC plant on the Red Sea.

Production of Sodium Hypochlorite Water Disinfectant from Seawater Desalination Brine

he research explores the onsite generation (OSG) of sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) from desalination brine in Gaza, Palestine. The process produces NaOCl as a valuable water disinfectant and contributes to marine environment protection and public health by reducing brine discharged to the sea. Batch experiments were used to examined the characteristics of producing NaOCl studying five factors viz. electrolysis time, current density, electrode type, electrode spacing and stability of the produced NaOCl. The highest NaOCl concentration was 2.17%, achieved with graphite electrodes 1.3 cm diameter, with 1cm electrodes spacing, 120 min electrolysis time, 180 mA/cm2 current density and 25 ± 2 ºC solution temperature. The NaOCl degradation rate was 1.8% and 10% daily when stored in dark places or exposed to direct sunlight, respectively. Thus, it is recommended to store NaOCl in dark places to minimize its degradation. The present study suggests the OSG of NaOCl as a promising alternative for brine management in Gaza and worldwide.

Recyclable Adsorbents for Potash Brine Desalination Based on Silicate Powder: Application, Regeneration and Utilization

Silicate mineral powders (SMP) from weathered granite soil from Kazakhstan are proposed for the desalination of potash brines containing sodium, potassium and chloride ions. Batch adsorption experiments using acid-treated silicate (AS) achieved a Na+/K+/Cl− recovery of ~13/28/6 mg/g. An isothermal study best fitted the Freundlich and Dubinin–Radushkevich models for Na+ and K+/Cl−. The kinetic data were best modeled by pseudo-second-order kinetics for Na+/K+ and pseudo-first-order for Cl−. Thermodynamic calculations showed spontaneity under natural conditions. For Na+/K+, physisorption is accompanied by ion exchange. To study the possibility of sorbent reuse, several cycles of K+/Na+ adsorption–desorption were carried out under optimal conditions. AS selectively adsorbed potassium ions, maintaining a high effectiveness during five cycles providing K-form silicate fertilizers. Leachates of spent AS contain high concentrations of K/Na/Ca/Mg and other microelements essential for plants. Thus, SMP resolve two issues: the desalination of brine and the provision of fertilizer.

Gypsiferous groundwater and its desalination brine concentrate: Biomass, water use, and salt “mining” of three Southwestern USA native halophytes

In drought affected regions, alternative water sources and salt tolerant crops have become increasingly important. Although there is extensive documentation describing the response of halophytes to NaCl laboratory solutions, limited data exist on their responses to natural brackish groundwater (BGW) and desalination brine concentrate that could be dominated by ions other than Na and Cl. This study investigated the biomass, evapotranspiration (ET), water productivity (WP), and ion uptake responses of three southwestern USA native halophyte species, Atriplex canescens (Pursh) Nutt. (fourwing saltbush), A. lentiformis (Torr.) S. Watson (big saltbush), and Lepidium alyssoides A. Gray var. alyssoides (mesa pepperwort). Six-week-old seedlings were irrigated with a nonsaline control treatment solution [electrical conductivity (EC) of 0.6 dS m-1], CaSO4-dominant BGW (EC ≈ 4 dS m-1), CaSO4-dominant reverse osmosis (RO) concentrate (EC ≈ 8 dS m-1), and counterpart NaCl-dominant solutions (EC ≈ 4 or 8 dS m-1). After 6 wk, BGW and low NaCl solutions increased shoot biomass of . A. lentiformis by ≈ 20% but did not stimulate top growth of A. canescens or L. alyssoides. Increasing salinity had no effect on WP of L. alyssoides, but it increased WP of the Atriplex spp. The combined shoot Na and Cl concentrations reached 7% of dry wt. in L. alyssoides and 9–10% in the Atriplex spp. with no characteristic signs of leaf burn. Conversely, roots were the main sinks for Ca and S, combining for 6–7% of dry wt. and showing the potential to put the main brine solutes to beneficial use. Markedly similar patterns in growth and water use with the NaCl-only solutions and the CaSO4-dominant solutions suggests a primary role of total salinity in these salinity responses, which in turn supports the use of diverse BGW typesnot just NaCl for halophyte production.

Exergetic analysis of direct contact membrane distillation (DCMD) using PVDF hollow fiber membranes for the desalination brine treatment

The brines from desalination plants need to be disposed of due to their strong impact on the environment. Membrane operations, like direct contact membrane distillation (DCMD), provide a possible solution to reduce the amount of brine while producing further desalinated water. In this study, an exergy analysis of a laboratory membrane distillation unit working with brines from reverse osmosis (RO) is analyzed. Exergy analysis enables us to assess the energy lost in entropy generation; therefore, it commits us to identify the less efficient configuration of the DCMD module. Unlike other exergy analyses for distillation, in this study, only module inputs and outputs were incorporated. The exergy is calculated at different infeed temperatures, for both in-out and out-in feed configurations of hollow fiber membrane modules. Also, exergy difference, flux, and exergetic efficiency for both configurations are calculated. At high feed temperatures, there is an increase in both flux and exergy change, which increases water recovery and feed side exergetic efficiency. The highest flux that is obtained in the out-in configuration is 13.3 kg/h.m2 while it is only 6.23 kg/h.m2 for the in-out system of the module. Also, these exergy changes and feed efficiencies are higher in the out-in module configuration than in the in-out module configuration. Conversely, the exergetic efficiency of the permeate is higher at lower feed temperatures, due to the lower accumulation of concentration polarization along the membrane wall.

Techno-economic analysis of seawater reverse osmosis brines treatment using nanofiltration modelling tools

The management of seawater desalination (SWD) brine presents environmental and economic challenges. However, according to the circular economy approach, this residue offers an interesting source of resources. While nanofiltration (NF) has been extensively studied experimentally, few modelling tools exist for scaling up this process due to its performance dependence on solution composition, membrane characteristics, and operational parameters.In this study, the Solution-Electro-Diffusion-Film model was used to conduct a techno-economic analysis for scaling up NF in the treatment of SWD brine, with a focus on resource recovery. Three commercial membranes, NF270, PROXS2, and Fortilife XC-N, were subjected to technical and economic evaluations. Initially, permeate flux, selectivity factors, and scaling potential were determined as a function of applied pressure and permeate recovery. An economic evaluation was conducted considering energy consumption, capital expenditures, and operational expenditures.Results indicated that the NF270 membrane exhibited the highest permeate flux and the lowest rejections, suggesting a low scaling potential. However, this membrane also demonstrated the lowest selectivity factors. In contrast, the PROXS2 and Fortilife XC-N membranes exhibited the highest selectivity factors, particularly at high operational pressures. Regarding economic aspects, it was observed that increasing permeate recovery and reducing pressure led to decrease energy consumption (0.5–1.5 kWh/m3).

Rational Design of a 3D Crown‐Based Material for the Selective Recovery of Silver Ions from Seawater and e‐Waste

AbstractSilver recovery from sustainable sources such as seawater and e‐waste is critical for the conservation of land‐based resources and the reduction of the environmental impacts of e‐waste disposal. However, the abundance of competing metal ions in seawater and in e‐waste makes the recovery extremely challenging. Thus, to effectively capture silver ions under these conditions, the designing of materials with high selectivity, sufficient binding sites, and low affinity to competing metal ions is vital. Herein, we report the design and synthesis of a 3D‐like Schiff‐bridging crown‐based material named AC5, for the selective recovery of Ag+ ions. Through this design, a significant enhancement in the silver ion recovery was achieved with an excellent removal efficiency of up to 99.9%, and a tremendous increase in selectivity of 400 000 – 900 000% when compared to the metal ions (Li+, Na+, K+, Mg2+, and Ca2+) found in seawater, and the heavy metal ions (Cu2+, Cd2+, Ni2+, and Pb2+) found in electronic wastes. Density functional theory and molceular dynamics simulations revealed that the structural geometry of AC5 favors high charge transfer, lowered global hardness, and enhanced ion‐dipole attractions toward Ag+ ions, making the material an excellent candidate for the efficient recovery of silver from desalination brine and spent silver resources.

Circulation of boron resources from desalination brine through solvent extraction (TMPD/2-ethylhexanol with kerosene) and ionic-liquid extraction (ALiCy/kerosene) methods

Circulation of boron resources from desalination brine through solvent extraction (TMPD/2-ethylhexanol with kerosene) and ionic-liquid extraction (ALiCy/kerosene) methods