Natural Gas Deposits Research Articles

A Survey of Typical Claims and Key Defenses Asserted in Recent Hydraulic Fracturing Litigation

Small energy companies using hydraulic fracturing, along with horizontal drilling, are unlocking vast oil and natural gas deposits trapped in shale all over the United States. Over the past few years, several key technical, economic, and energy policy developments have spurred increased use of hydraulic fracturing for oil and gas extraction over a wider diversity of geographic regions and geologic formations.2 However, with the expansion of hydraulic fracturing, there have been increasing concerns voiced by the public about potential impacts on drinking water resources, public health, and the environment.

Estimations of exploration and production costs for natural gas and oil deposits in geological basins in Poland

Streszczenie Artykuł poświęcony jest przeglądowi metod i sposobów estymacji kosztów otworów wiertniczych stoso- wanych na rynkach międzynarodowych (głównie na rynku północnoamerykańskim) oraz zawiera próbę aplikacji wybranej metody lub metod dla dostępnych danych odnośnie tego typu kosztów w basenach geologicznych w Polsce. Autorzy zajmują się wstępnym oszacowaniem przydatności tego typu estymacji dla modelowania i benchmarkingu efektywności prac poszukiwawczych i wydobywczych w Polsce. Na poziomie poszczególnych przedsiębiorstw poszukiwawczo-wydobywczych benchmarking i planowanie kosztowe są z reguły oparte na wypracowanych na różnorodnych złożach doświadczeniach i próbach optymalizacji technicznej i kosztowej całości procesu. W artykule zaproponowano i opisano wstępny algorytm do wyliczeń tych kosztów. Autorzy zwracają uwagę, że przydatność utworzonego na bazie równania (4) modelu do estymacji kosztów wierceń na podstawie głębokości docelowych formacji w Polsce jest mniejsza niż w na rynku amerykańskim, ale nadal bardzo wysoka. W przypadku analiz wykonywanych poza przedsiębiorstwami prowadzącymi prace poszukiwawczo- -wydob>|vcze może to być jedyne dostępne narzędzie do szacunkowych obliczeń kosztów otworów wiertniczych dla poszczególnych basenów geologicznych i docelowych głębokości.

Natural Gas and the Transformation of the Energy Sector in The Netherlands / Gaz Ziemny A Transformacja Sektora Energii W Holandii

Abstract The aim of this paper is to discuss the conditions for the modernization of the energy sector in the Netherlands following the discovery of natural gas deposits in the country and a rapidly growing importance of this fuel. Hence the paper presents the essence of the model of transition management in the energy sector. It also shows the nature of changes in the structure of primary energy sources in the Netherlands and the decisive factors that led to the prominent role of natural gas in this country. These considerations formed the basis for discussion on the contemporary energy policy in the Netherlands.

Udział Państwowe go Instytutu Geologicznego w rozwoju gospodarki narodowej

Wklad PIG w rozwoj gospodarki narodowej wyraza sie odkryciami kopalin uzytecznych, ktore są podstawą roznych galezi przemyslu, oraz wieloma osiągnieciami w zakresie badan hydrogeologicznych i geologiczno-inzynierskich. Do najwazniejszych osiągniec nalezą odkrycia unikatowych w skali światowej zloz: rud miedzi kolo Lubina, siarki rodzimej kolo Tarnobrzega, lubelskiego Zaglebia Weglowego, a takze wielu zloz: wegla brunatnego, soli kamiennej, polihalitow, cynku i olowiu, tytanomagnetytow z wanadem, kaolinu, barytu i duzej ilości zloz kopalin skalnych. Baza surowcowa Polski opiera sie na kopalinach uzytecznych umiejscowionych w ponad 4200 zlozach o lącznych zasobach powyzej 205 mld t. Na podstawie wartości wydobywanych surowcow mineralnych omowiono pozycje Polski wśrod krajow dysponujących wlasnymi surowcami mineralnymi. SHARE OF THE STATE GEOLOGICAL INSTITUTE IN DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATIONAL ECONOMICS During its 70 years of existence the State Geological institute has carried through the studies of a geological structure of the country to create the basis for exploration, exploitation and conservation of deposits and underground waters, and also for investigations of engineering-geological conditions. A harmonic development of the natural-cognitive assemblage of the Earth sciences connected with app lied and economic geology what is due to statutory foundations, ensures in suitable means for investigations and is a main factor that enables to receive good results of geological exploration works. A share of the institute in development of national economics is expressed by discoveries of deposits of mineral resources that form the basis for development of numerous industrial branches. Results of hydrogeological regional studies and investigations of restoration of underground water resources form also a very important achievement. These works gain a particular significance against common ecological impendency of waters. During reconstructing works and development of the country after the war, engineering-geological studies for large industrial objects as steelworks, electric power stations and hydrotechnical constructions have been of great importance. The most important achievements include unique in the world discoveries of copper ore deposits in the Lubin area, of native sulphur near Tarnobrzeg, of the Lublin Coal Basin and also of numerous deposits of brown coal, mine salt, polyhalites, zinc of numerous deposits of brown coal, mine salt, polyhalites, zinc and lead, titanomagnetites with vanadium, kaolin, barite and abundant deposits of rock materials. A resources basis of Poland is based on mineral raw materials located in over 4200 deposits, total resources of which exceed 205 mld tons. The analysis of values of exploited mineral products being subjected to international exchange proves that a total production value of the country constitutes 1% of the total world production and there-fore, Poland occupies the 22nd place in the world and 5th place in Europe. Abundance of the country in mineral products is larger than results from evaluation of the outpit as many resources (e.g. potash salts, some metal or chemical deposits) are not exploited. In spite of undoubted rich raw resources of Poland there are no sufficient deposits of natural oil and gas. These two products are the most valuable in the world production. If energetic resources are not taken into account (therefore also of the Polish hard and brown coals), then the value of the production of mineral resources puts our country at the 11th place in the world and the first one in Europe. A role played by the State Geological Institute in a discovery of these resources is undoubtful.

Energy for future presidents: the science behind the headlines

The near meltdown of Fukushima, the upheavals in the Middle East, the BP oil spill, and the looming reality of global warming have reminded the president and all U.S. citizens that nothing has more impact on our lives than the supply and demand for energy. Its procurement dominates our economy and foreign policy more than any other factor. But the question is more confusing, contentious, and complicated than ever before. We need to know if nuclear power will ever really be safe. We need to know if solar and wind power will ever really be viable. And we desperately need to know if the natural gas deposits in Pennsylvania are a windfall of historic proportions or a false alarm that will create more problems than solutions. Richard A. Muller provides the answers in this must-read manual for our energy priorities now and in the coming years.

Methane as raw material in synthetic chemistry: the final frontier

In spite of its large availability in natural or shale gas deposits, the use of methane in the chemical industry as feedstock from a synthetic point of view yet constitutes a challenge in modern chemistry. Only the production of the so-called syngas, a mixture of CO and H2 derived from the complete cleavage of the methane molecule, operates at the industrial level. The relevance of methane in the current industry, mainly toward methanol production, is described in this Tutorial. The methanol economy has been already proposed as an alternative to current fuel sources. Methanol synthesis directly from methane would imply the activation of the latter. Toward this end, the different methodologies reported to activate methane with transition metal complexes as well as the few examples of the catalytic functionalization of methane are presented.

Hydrocarbon Behavior at Nanoscale Interfaces

Throughout Earth’s crust and upper mantle, fluids play the dominant role in transporting and concentrating Earth’s energy and mineral resources (Liebscher and Heinrich 2007). Furthermore, the flux of fluids, which act as both reaction media and reactants, strongly influences the genesis and evolution of many different kinds of rocks. Among many different types of fluids, those containing volatile carbon, hydrogen and oxygen (C-H-O) species tend to dominate in the lithosphere along with various electrolytes and silica. These fluids commonly contain methane as both a major constituent and an important energy source. Conventional natural gas deposits reside in sedimentary basins where fluid overpressure often results in brittle failure of the confining rocks. Industry exploration and exploitation of shale gas (e.g., the Marcellus, Utica, and Barnett formations) has refocused attention on understanding the fundamental behavior of volatile hydrocarbon—rock interactions. Recent observations of hydrocarbons emanating from non-sedimentary systems (abiogenic), such as mid-ocean ridge hydrothermal systems or occurring within some crystalline rock-dominated Precambrian shield environments have challenged the view that organic rich sediments provide the only significant source of crustal hydrocarbons (Potter and Konnerup-Madsen 2003; Sleep et al. 2004; Sherwood Lollar et al. 2006; McCollom 2013; Sephton and Hazen 2013). Geopressured-geothermal regimes contain C-H-O fluids with vast energy potential in the form of methane and hot water at high pressure. Even fluid inclusions from both metamorphic and igneous terrains record the presence of methane-bearing fluids reflecting reduced redox state conditions of formation. The consequences of coupled reactive-transport processes common to most geological environments depend on the properties and reactivity of these crustal fluids over broad ranges of temperature, pressure and fluid composition. The relative strengths of complex molecular-scale interactions in geologic fluids, and the changes in those interactions with temperature, pressure, and fluid composition, are the fundamental basis for observed …

Impactos económicos del aprovechamiento de los yacimientos de gas natural de la Cuenca de Burgos mediante el esquema de contratos de obra pública financiada / Economic Impacts of Intensification in the Exploitation of Natural Gas Deposits of Cuenca de Bur

Mediante la construcción de un modelo interregional de insumo producto se analizan los impactos sobre la producción, el empleo, los salarios y el valor agregado relacionados con el programa de aprovechamiento de los yacimientos de gas natural de la Cuenca de Burgos por medio del esquema denominado contratos de obra pública financiada (modalidad de participación de la inversión privada en la explotación de ese recurso energético). AbstractUsing an interregional input-output model, this paper examines the impacts in production and employment associated with the program of exploitation of natural gas deposits of Cuenca de Burgos (located in the northeast region of Mexico) using the scheme of Public Investment Financing Contracts (modality of private capital participation in the production of natural gas).

The U.S. Role and Policy in Central Asia: Energy and Beyond

A significant geopolitical consequence of the demise of the Soviet Union1 in the international arena is the rise of intense political and commercial competition for control of the vast energy resources of the newly independent and vulnerable states of the Caucasus and Central Asia. These energy resources and, in particular, the oil and natural gas deposits have now become the apple of discord in Central Asia introducing a new chapter in the Great Game of control over Eurasia (Hill 1997: 200). The region has great energy potential and is strategically important. The United States has varied and at times competing interests in Central Asia. In the past few years, real and present dangers to the U.S. national security especially Islamist terrorism and threats to the energy supply, have affected the U.S. policy in Central Asia. The region, which includes the five post-Soviet states of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan, as well as Afghanistan and the Caspian basin, plays an important part in the U.S. global strategy in view of its proximity to Russia, China, India, Pakistan, Iran, and other key regional actors. No less important are its ethno-religious composition and vast deposits of oil, gas, coal, and uranium. Literally, the U.S. interests in Central Asia can be summarized in three simple words: security, energy, and democracy. Moreover, a key U.S. national security concern is the diversification of energy sources and the Caspian region is a significant alternative source of fossil fuels. In this article a critical analysis will be attempted on the U.S. policy and role in central Asia. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3329/afj.v4i0.12931 The Arts Faculty Journal Vol.4 July 2010-June 2011 pp.33-51

Optimization of a Directional Borehole Trajectory as the Criterion of Minimum Cost of Performance / Optymalizacja Trajektorii Otworu Kierunkowego Dla Kryterium Minimalizacji Kosztu Jego Wykonania

Abstract New drilling technical and technological solutions enhance the development of directional drilling, enabling better control of direction of drilling and real-time 3D information about the position of the bit in the borehole rendered by the control and measurement apparatuses. The 2D and 3D method of designing the trajectory of a borehole axis has been modified in this paper. In both cases the minimum cost of drilling of a borehole in an interval from the beginning of its deflecting (KOP) up to the ultimate destination point was assumed to be the optimization criterion. Another assumption says that the admissible dogleg will never be exceeded over the entire interval of the borehole axis. Commonly more and more boreholes are performed from one place or one drilling platform. Such drilling is aimed at, e.g. developing unconventional deposits of natural gas or improving the depletion factor by injecting water or CO2. In such cases the boreholes are located densely, which may result in their colliding. Hence, attention was drawn to the fact that in such cases inaccuracies of apparatuses measuring the angle of deflection of the borehole, azimuth, length of the borehole and formation of error ellipsoids around a given point should be accounted for. The assumed method of positioning the borehole axis is also important. For a considerable length of the borehole axis the calculations are simple but time-consuming, therefore specialist computer programs are recommended. The trajectories of directional boreholes should be designed taking into account the position of the neighboring boreholes and inaccuracy of measuring equipment, as in this way the level of risk of potential collisions of boreholes axes can be determined.

Modeling of thermodynamic conditions for the recovery of high-purity helium from gas mixtures by the hydrate formation method

The modern technology for the recovery of helium from heliumcontaining natural gas is based on the lowtemperature separation (fractional distillation) method, in which helium is separated from other gases in the course of their liquefaction. This method requires considerable energy and resource inputs. An energysaving route to separate gas mixtures can be enrichment of natural gas with helium upon clathrate hydrate formation (1). Gas (clathrate) hydrates are inclusion compounds consisting of water molecules, which form the host crystal lattice, and guest molecules occupying lattice cavities (2). Current interest in gas hydrates stems from their possible use as fuel, as well as from their possible effect on global climate changes (3) and the use of gas hydrate technologies for natural gas storage and transportation (4). The helium content in natural gas is usually low as compared with the major component methane, although there are some natural gas deposits contain� ing up to 8 vol % helium. Methane accounts for more than 70-80 vol % of such gas deposits. Commercially interesting for helium recovery are natural gas deposits containing more than 0.3 vol % helium (5). The exist� ence of clathrate helium hydrates is still debatable since no reliable experimental data supporting or refuting this fact have been available so far. However, experimental evidence for the possibility of helium hydrate formation has been reported in (6). It has been theoretically predicted that structure II helium hydrates can form at high pressures (beginning with 800 atm) and low temperatures (250 K) (7). It has been shown that, at the same temperatures, mixed structure I and II methane-helium clathrate hydrates form at lower pressures than pure helium hydrates even at small concentrations of methane in the gas phase (8). The present work is aimed to find a correlation between the composition of mixed methane-helium hydrates of cubic structures I and II and the composi� tion of the gas phase being at equilibrium with the hydrate, as well as to determine conditions of forma� tion of mixed methane-helium hydrates at low helium concentrations in the gas phase for developing meth� ods of deep purification of helium from methane via hydrate formation.

TOTAL COLUMN METHANE RETRIEVALS USING THE TROPOSPHERIC INFRARED MAPPING SPECTROMETER OVER SUNGLINT

Abstract. Because it is a greenhouse gas, the detection of methane concentrations is a global issue. Additionally, the presence of methane is indicative of potential valuable petroleum and natural gas deposits. Therefore methane seep detection is useful for petroleum exploration around the world. The detection of methane, and other absorbing gases, over water is an issue for passive systems because one is seeking to detect an absorbing gas over an absorbing surface. The solution to this dilemma is to use the sun/sensor geometry for sun glint off of water to measure the absorbing gas over a reflecting surface, and therefore significantly increase the signal to noise of the measurement being taken. In September of 2010 Lockheed Martin performed a proof of concept by demonstrating from an airship over San Francisco Bay the capability of the Tropospheric Infrared Mapping Spectrometer's (TIMS) hyper spectral sensor to passively measure methane, CO, and water vapor over sunglint water. The Lockheed Martin prototype TIMS sensor system is a hyper spectral grating spectrometer instrument that operates in the 2.3 micron spectral region at 0.25 cm-1 resolution. The Lockheed Martin retrieval algorithm developed applies the kCARTA (kCompressed Atmospheric Radiative Transfer Algorithm) with Jacobians, with the HITRAN 2008 lineshape parameters, to retrieve the total column amount of atmospheric species along with the calibrated TIMS sensors radiometric input. A cell with known amount of methane was placed into the input to the TIMS to simulate atmospheric enhancements near the water surface. The amount in the cell was retrieved well within the uncertainty of 1% of the amount in the cell. Multi frame retrievals on data in which the cell was not placed into the input beam demonstrated 1% precision. In addition, in situ surface measurements were done over a landfill park, where measurements of methane were taken over known hotspots. This research allows for the future development of a system to measure methane, and other gases, for climate and petroleum exploration capabilities.

The History and International Relations of the Gulf Region Reconsidered

The Arab Gulf States: Beyond Oil and Islam. By Sean Foley . Boulder: Lynne Reinner, 2010. 315 pp., $26.50 paperback (ISBN-13: 978-1-58826-706-1). The International Relations of the Persian Gulf. By F. Gregory Gause III . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010. 258 pp., $27.00 paperback (ISBN-13: 978-0-521-13730-0). The Arab Gulf region is of great geopolitical importance owing to its oil and natural gas deposits. Ironically, the history and international relations of the region had, for several reasons, been quite neglected by the academic arena for decades (see, e.g., Russell 2010:653). First and foremost, where political studies are concerned, this neglect had been linked with the development of the discipline itself and its debate in and toward non-Western states and societies specifically (see, e.g., Anderson 1987:1; Green 1993:517–518). Second, up until the late 1980s, studies on the Gulf region had been closely associated either with an examination of the Islamist role or with the Arab–Israeli conflict. Third, many orientalists and policy makers were more interested in examining the region to pursue their own national interests rather than understanding the special regional conditions. With the rise of new generations with the relevant academic expertise since the beginning of the 1990s, there have been new types of studies into the regional dynamics of the Gulf area (Nonneman 2001). The two reviewed books make use of this innovative approach. The Arab Gulf States is an ambitious and original work of analysis and insight written by Sean Foley, an assistant professor of history at the University of Tennessee. The book is enhanced by the author's educational background in history. Traditionally, many scholars analyzing the region have employed the normative rentier framework, or the so-called Islamist approach. The book is ambitious because it goes beyond these already exhausted and limited approaches. Foley points out that the information age and the emergence of a younger, educated elite are factors that have forced substantial developments in the GCC countries (Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates) and have resulted in political and economic reforms. Such factors are worth analysis on …

Geologic methane seeps along boundaries of Arctic permafrost thaw and melting glaciers

Methane, a potent greenhouse gas, accumulates in subsurface hydrocarbon reservoirs, such as coal beds and natural gas deposits. In the Arctic, permafrost and glaciers form a ‘cryosphere cap’ that traps gas leaking from these reservoirs, restricting flow to the atmosphere. With a carbon store of over 1,200 Pg, the Arctic geologic methane reservoir is large when compared with the global atmospheric methane pool of around 5 Pg. As such, the Earth’s climate is sensitive to the escape of even a small fraction of this methane. Here, we document the release of 14C-depleted methane to the atmosphere from abundant gas seeps concentrated along boundaries of permafrost thaw and receding glaciers in Alaska and Greenland, using aerial and ground surface survey data and in situ measurements of methane isotopes and flux. We mapped over 150,000 seeps, which we identified as bubble-induced open holes in lake ice. These seeps were characterized by anomalously high methane fluxes, and in Alaska by ancient radiocarbon ages and stable isotope values that matched those of coal bed and thermogenic methane accumulations. Younger seeps in Greenland were associated with zones of ice-sheet retreat since the Little Ice Age. Our findings imply that in a warming climate, disintegration of permafrost, glaciers and parts of the polar ice sheets could facilitate the transient expulsion of 14C-depleted methane trapped by the cryosphere cap. In the Arctic, permafrost and glaciers form a ‘cryosphere cap’ that traps methane leaking from hydrocarbon reservoirs, restricting flow to the atmosphere. Aerial surveys and ground-based measurements reveal the release of radiocarbon-depleted methane along boundaries of permafrost thaw and retreating glaciers in Alaska and Greenland.

Oil and Gas Resources Management and Environmental Challenges in Nigeria

Nigeria is richly endowed with crude oil and natural gas deposits, which are the country's main source of energy and foreign exchange earnings. These deposits are concentrated at the Niger Delta region which has attracted the presence of multinational oil/gas companies to the area. This paper analyses the impact of oil and gas development on the rich biological diversity of the region and its consequences on the development of the region and the nation at large. The paper further reviews the abject poverty of the oil/gas producing communities whose source of livelihoods, fisheries resources, agricultural soils/farmlands, forests, clean water, fresh air and housing are being destroyed due to poor energy resource management. The magnitude of destruction and frustration is reflected in unending conflict and insecurity in the region leading to many shut-in productions which pose a governance challenge as the country's economy and development is heavily dependent on oil and gas production.

Experimental studies on indigenous hydrocarbon-degrading and hydrogen-producing bacteria in an oilfield for microbial restoration of natural gas deposits with CO2 sequestration

Sequestration of carbon dioxide (CO2) into depleted oil reservoirs may be a method of reducing CO2 emissions. We focus on microbial restoration of natural gas deposits with CO2 sequestration via in situ microbial conversion of CO2 into methane (CH4) by hydrogenotrophic methanogens (HM) that universally inhabit oil reservoirs. The means of supplying HM with H2 for their CH4 production is central to this process. This study considers the potential of this process by evaluating the H2 productivity of hydrocarbon-degrading and hydrogen-producing bacteria (HD–HPB) that inhabit oil reservoirs.Reservoir brine was extracted from 10 producing wellheads in the Yabase Oilfield of Japan. Indigenous bacteria in the brine samples were incubated with sterile oil under anaerobic conditions with 10%-CO2 (N2 balanced) at 50 °C and 75 °C. Production of H2 and CH4 and consumption of CO2 were observed in almost all the brine at both temperature, especially, larger amount of gases were produced at 50 °C. Those gases production was significantly stimulated with the additional yeast extract, on the other hand, it became lower under high pressure condition.Nutrient agar inoculated with raw brine was incubated under anaerobic conditions at 50 °C and 75 °C. Microbial single colonies formed in the nutrient agar media after 2 weeks were selected and inoculated into sterile brine including sterile oil. More than 20 isolates were isolated and incubated in the brine media and 14 strains were observed to produce H2 after 3 months incubation. The maximum rate of H2 production by HD–HPB was 0.38 NmL/L-medium/day.These results suggest that in situ microbial conversion of sequestrated CO2 and H2 generated by HD–HPB into CH4 using HM can be expected in many oilfields universally. Moreover, the most capable HD–HPB isolated in this study can be injected into reservoirs to stimulate the restoration of natural gas deposits with CO2 sequestration.

International politics of the Persian Gulf

For much of the contemporary history of the Middle East, the Persian Gulf has stood at the center of the region's strategic significance. At the same time, the Gulf has been wracked by political instability and tension. As far back as the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, Britain zeroed in on the Persian Gulf as a critical passageway to its crown jewel, India, and entered into protectorate agreements with local ruling families, thus bestowing on them international legitimacy and, eventually, the resources and support necessary to ascend to kingships. Today, the region is undergoing profound changes that range from rapid economic and infrastructural development to tumultuous social and cultural transformations. Far from eroding the area's political significance, these changes have only accentuated rivalries and tensions and have brought to the forefront new challenges to international security and stability. Together, the essays in this volume present a comprehensive, detailed, and accessible account of the international politics of the region. Focusing on the key factors that give the Persian Gulf its strategic significance, contributors look at the influence of vast deposits of oil and natural gas on international politics, the impact of the competing centers of power of Iran and Saudi Arabia, the nature of relationships among countries within the Persian Gulf, and the evolving interaction between Islam and politics. Throughout the collection, issues of internal and international security are shown to be central. Drawing on the comprehensive knowledge and experience of experts in the region, The International Politics of the Persian Gulf shines a bright light on this area, offering insights and thoughtful analyses on the critical importance of this troubled region to global politics.

The Destruction of Heritage - Rock Art in the Burrup Peninsula

The destruction of rock art in the Burrup Peninsula, performed by several mammoth industries strategically located in the Peninsula since the 1960s, allows me to analyze the concept of heritage and !nd meaning in the dif!cult task of interpreting rock art. The Burrup Peninsula not only hosts the largest rock art site in the world, but also one of the largest deposits of natural gas, iron ore and salt. As a consequence, the land (sacred to the Indigenous people), becomes extremely important in order to sustain the booming economy of Australia. In this dif!cult negotiation between heritage and progress the rock art is embedded with new meanings and the heritage becomes ephemeral. Failing to include the site in the World Heritage Site list (UNESCO), the roles of identity and memory are contested. As a result, the concept of heritage can be de!ned on several levels: local, regional, national and international.

Gas Flaring, Transportation and Sustainable Energy Development in the Niger-Delta, Nigeria

Nigeria is ranked within the top 10 countries of the world with the largest proven deposits of natural gas; however, it flares much more than the combined energy needs of sub-Saharan Africa in a day. This phenomenon has brought socio- economic losses and health related problems to the Niger- Delta and its people. Estimates from the World Bank suggest that amounts in excess of 100billion cubic meters of natural gas are burnt yearly. The flaring of this gas is deemed to be a colossal waste of resources, particularly in a country experiencing huge energy shortages. This article thus makes a review of the attendant effects of continued gas flaring from an economic stand point; assesses the country's commitment to end the practice of gas flaring and lastly explores market opportunities (local and international) for the various liquefied natural gas (LNG) projects. This paper, will contribute towards resolving the above stated problem, especially the provision of energy to a rapidly growing population in a sustainable manner. This would be in the form of the development of natural gas as a viable form of energy locally, as well as the movement towards the opening up of new international markets for liquefied natural gas.

The Destruction of Heritage: Rock Art in the Burrup Peninsula

The destruction of rock art in the Burrup Peninsula, performed by several mammoth industries strategically located in the Peninsula since the 1960s, allows me to analyse the concept of heritage within a global history of art and find meaning in the difficult task of interpreting rock art. The Burrup Peninsula not only hosts the largest rock art site in the world, but also one of the largest deposits of natural gas, iron ore and salt. As a consequence, the land (sacred to the Indigenous people), becomes extremely important in order to sustain the booming economy of Australia. In this difficult negotiation between heritage and progress the rock art is embedded with new meanings and the heritage becomes ephemeral. Failing to include the site in the World Heritage Site list created by UNESCO, the roles of identity and memory are contested by the two groups represented on each side of the debate: on one hand, the Aboriginal Traditional owners and the archaeologists; on the other, the Australian government and the cultural establishment that denies the rock art an aesthetic significance by considering it “primitive” and “archaic”. The debate becomes even more pertinent after realizing that the Australian government has flagged other buildings and natural parks as World Heritage Sites, while the rock art in the Burrup Peninsula is catalogued as national, but not World, Heritage. As a result, the concept of heritage can be defined on several levels: local, regional, national and international.