Soil Fertility Depletion Research Articles

Sustainable Agricultural Alternatives to Cope with Drought Effects in Semi-Arid Areas of Southern Mozambique: Review and Strategies Proposal

Drought, pests, soil fertility depletion, environmental challenges, and the limited use of agricultural inputs continue to plague food production in many developing countries such as Mozambique. As a response to these production constraints, sustainable strategies must be defined to cope with these problems. One strategy, largely applied worldwide, is the combination of the usage of plant growth-promoting microorganisms, conservation tillage, intercropping, and crop residue management. The above can help smallholder farmers to become more resilient, sustainable, and productive, in a framework where the limitations imposed by global climate change are being exacerbated. The impacts of these strategies are less known and lack studies in Mozambique. Here, we provide a comprehensive review based on the relevant scientific literature published in the last three decades which evaluated the effects of diverse sustainable alternatives for crop production, mainly oriented to enhance crop tolerance to drought. The use of these strategies and their promising potential to increase crop yields under drought conditions emerge as one of the most sustainable approaches, leading to both an increase in agricultural productivity and the amelioration of soil properties in Southern Mozambique. However, to achieve this goal, it is critical to perform studies that enable positive impacts and also take full account of the specific socio-economic and environmental contexts in which agricultural production is developed in the semi-arid areas of Southern Mozambique. Hence, future field studies assessing conservation agriculture practices effects on yield productivity and environment under drought conditions are suggested to address issues concerned to sustainable agricultural productions which allow us to achieve Sustainable Development Goal 1 (SDG 1) and SDG 2.

Application of Balanced Fertilization to Rice Farmers in Darat Sawah Ulu Village, Seginim District, South Bengkulu Regency

Soil fertility depletion due to chemical fertilizers is one of the causes of low productivity of rice plants. This study aims to determine the application of balanced fertilization to rice farmers in Darat Sawah Ulu Village, Seginim District, South Bengkulu Regency, and to design an empowerment design that supports the implementation of a balanced fertilization system. This research was carried out from January to June 2024 in Darat Sawah Ulu Village, Seginim District, Bengkulu Province. This study uses a quantitative descriptive approach with a survey method using a questionnaire as an instrument used in the research. The sample used was 40 respondents. The level of balanced fertilization application in Darat Sawah Ulu Village, Seginim District, South Bengkulu Regency is in the high category with the average percentage of 5 correct applications is 77.214%. Agricultural extension workers need to assist to maintain the sustainability of implementing this highly balanced fertilizer with appropriate programs.

Edaphic factors mediate the response of nitrogen cycling and related enzymatic activities and functional genes to heavy metals: A review.

Soil nitrogen (N) transformations control N availability and plant production and pose environmental concerns when N is lost, raising issues such as soil acidification, water contamination, and climate change. Former studies suggested that soil N cycling is chiefly regulated by microbial activity; however, emerging evidence indicates that this regulation is disrupted by heavy metal (HM) contamination, which alters microbial communities and enzyme functions critical to N transformations. Environmental factors like soil organic carbon, soil texture, water content, temperature, soil pH, N fertilization, and redox status play significant roles in modulating the response of soil N cycling to HM contamination. This review examines how different HMs affect soil N processes, including N fixation, mineralization, nitrification, denitrification, dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium (DNRA), and immobilization, as well as microbial activities and functional genes related to soil N transformations. The review additionally outlines the impact of HMs on environmental degradation, including the risk of soil N losses (e.g., leaching, runoff, and gaseous emissions) and depletion of soil fertility, thus threatening the sustainability of the ecosystem. The effect of edaphic factors and fertilization on soil N cycling response to HM contamination was also examined. The effect of phytoremediation, a sustainable approach to remediate HM polluted soils, on N cycling was also reviewed. Thus, this review underscores the importance of increasing research and innovative strategies to combat HM pollution's effects to enhance soil health, boost crop yields, and protect soil stability and productivity.

Effect of Nutrient Management on Ricebean [Vigna umbellata (Thunb.) Ohwi and Ohashi]- linseed (Linum usitatissimum L.)

Background: Soil fertility depletion is a major constraint on agricultural production, necessitating a balanced application of inorganic and organic nutrients while effective crop residue management post-harvest enhances soil quality and structure, mitigates evaporation and aids carbon fixation. In Nagaland, agriculture faces challenges like nutrient loss from erosion and minimal use of external inputs while sustainable agriculture requires a viable cropping system and effective crop management; technological advancements in agro-techniques, particularly in cropping systems and nutrient management, are crucial for improving productivity in a ricebean-based linseed cropping system. Methods: A field experiment was conducted to focus on green manuring followed by cultivating a legume crop, rice bean and subsequently linseed in 2019-2021, the investigation would carry out to study the growth, yield and quality parameter and the study was laid in randomized block design with three replications and nine treatments with sources of organic manures and inorganic fertilizers. Result: The study revealed substantial influence of growth and yield which included a combination of poultry manure at 0.7 tons ha-1 along with 100% RDF exhibited superior performance in ricebean, a similar trend was also observed in the subsequent crop, which was linseed and also yielded promising results in terms of plant height, nodules, pods plant-1, seeds pods-1 and yield and concluded to achieve higher seed yield, improve seed quality, preserve soil quality.

Empirical Analysis of Key Factors Influencing China's Grain Production Capacity

China, as the world's most populous country, is also its largest consumer of grain. Ensuring grain security is vital for national stability and economic development, underpinning socioeconomic progress. Since the reform and opening-up period, China's grain production has doubled, successfully mitigating challenges such as the global grain crisis in 2006 and the food crisis triggered by COVID-19 in 2020. However, this achievement has come at a cost, with grain output heavily reliant on practices that deplete soil fertility and involve excessive use of pesticides and fertilizers, causing significant environmental strain. This study investigates the factors influencing China's grain production from 1980 to 2020, aiming to evaluate its comprehensive production capacity and provide practical recommendations. The analysis integrates theoretical and empirical approaches. Theoretically, the study examines the effects of variables such as irrigated arable land area (X1, thousand hectares), agricultural machinery power (X2, ten thousand kilowatts), grain sowing area (X3, thousand hectares), fertilizer consumption (X4, ten thousand tons), and natural population growth rate (X5, percentage) on grain output. Empirically, it utilizes principal component analysis and model testing through Eviews, incorporating five grain-related indicators. The findings reveal that the influence of these factors shifts across different stages of grain production and development. Based on the results, the paper offers targeted strategies to enhance China’s grain production capacity sustainably.

Advancements in Machine Learning and Deep Learning Techniques for Crop Yield Prediction: A Comprehensive Review

Agriculture is the crucial pillar and basic building block of our nation. Agriculture plays a key role as the major source of revenue for our nation. Farming is the primary financial source of India. Abrupt environmental changes affect crop yield prediction. Unpredictable climate changes, lack of water resources, deficiency of nutrients, depletion of soil fertility, unbalanced irrigation systems, and conventional farming techniques are the major causes of crop yield prediction. Today, AI, the use of machine learning, and deep learning techniques provide an achievable solution to improve crop yields. The key intent of the survey is to accurately predict and improve crop yield by combining agricultural statistics with machine learning and deep learning models. To accomplish this, we have surveyed the optimization algorithms implemented in conjunction with the Random Forest and Cat Boost models. A survey made across multiple databases to determine the effectiveness of crop yield prediction and analysis was performed on the included articles. The survey results show that a hybrid CNN DNN and RNN model with optimization algorithms outperforms the other existing traditional models.

Soybean Bio-fertilizer Technology Promoting Through Cluster Based Demonization in the Mima Learning Watershed from Assosa Western Ethiopia

Soil fertility depletion and soil acidity are critical problems for soybean production in western Ethiopia. Therefore, a cluster based biofertilizer technology was demonstrated to improve the depleted soil fertility on Nitisols of Assosa Agricultural Research Centre during 2022 to 2024 cropping season to investigate the response of soybean yield to biofertilizer. The treatment consists of: farmers practice (100 kg NPS ha<sup>-1</sup>) and biofertilizer plus 100 kg NPS ha<sup>-1</sup>. Multidisciplinary team had given participatory training from the composed of Soil fertility researcher, soybean breeder and agricultural extension and communication for the selected participates. The training was delivered for different stake holders and farmers on agronomic management of soybean production techniques and management, cluster based bio fertilizer technology demonstration approach. Around 830 packets of bio-fertilizer are distributed for the farmers in last four years cropping season. In order to evaluate the performance share the lesson with different stakeholders’ field day and experience sharing were organized in the fields of beneficiary farmers. In the field day and experience sharing famers, development agents (DAs), experts, heads of agricultural and rural development office, researchers were participated. The cluster based demonstrated biofertilizer technology was compared with farmers practice and the field data recorded and analyzed by descriptive statics. The participant farmers and different stake holders preferred biofertilizer plus NPS fertilizer during the field day and experience sharing. The application of recommended NPS plus inoculation was higher in seed yield of maize by 14% compared to the application of recommended NPS fertilizers alone. The yield advantage relative to NPS alone indicating the depletion of the soil microorganism and its strong response to bio fertilizer application.

Residue and Irrigation Management for Optimizing Productivity and Profitability of Wheat in Ambala (Haryana)

Background: The rice-wheat cropping system in Haryana, Western Uttar Pradesh and Punjab faces sustainability risks due to soil fertility depletion, rising cultivation costs and environmental pollution hazards because of the large-scale burning of rice crop residues. Two-year field experiments investigated wheat sowing techniques by keeping rice crop residues under various irrigation schedules to optimize production and economic outcomes in Ambala, Haryana. Three sowing methods, i.e., conventional sowing (CS), Happy Seeder (HS) and Super Seeder (SS) and four irrigations scheduling, i.e., scheduling at critical growth stages (IS1), IW/CPE ratio 0.9 with first irrigation at CRI (IS2), IW/CPE ratio for whole crop season (IS3) and depletion of 50% available soil moisture (IS4). Methods: Happy Seeder sown wheat exhibited a significantly higher average yield of 58.38 q ha-1 than conventional (57.69 q ha-1) and Super seeder (56.85 q ha-1) sown wheat. Overall, Happy Seeder and irrigation schedule (IS3) produces the highest grain yield of 65.23, 63.56 and 64.40 q ha-1 in the first, second year and pooled year results. In conventional sowing of wheat, the average total cultivation cost was 107134.02 and 110907.71 Rs ha-1, which was less in Happy Seeder sown wheat, i.e., 99077.07 and 102932.27 Rs. ha-1 respectively, in the year 2021-22 and 2022-23. Result: The average benefit-cost ratio (BCR) for the happy seeder technique, 1.42 and 1.44, outperforms the conventional sowing wheat approach during both years of experiments. The recent wheat sowing using happy seeder under residue mulching conditions, must adopt modified irrigation scheduling practices to enhance yield and profitability, contributing to sustainable agricultural practices. The study highlights the potential of recent agricultural practices to boost farmer income, promote sustainable agricultural growth and environment conservation.

Evaluating the productivity of five forages for the phytoremediation of heavy metal-contaminated land

Post-tin mining land holds promise for cultivating forage crops, with the potential to address Pb metal contamination through plant-based phytoremediation. However, the presence of heavy metals and depleted soil fertility resulting from tin mining activities may pose challenges to plant productivity and contribute to residual heavy metal accumulation. This study aims to assess the productivity and phytoremediation capacity of Pb by various grass species on reclaimed mining land. Using a randomised block design with three replications, the study was conducted over a four-year period in a post-mining area in Central Bangka Regency, Indonesia. Three grass species: Megathyrsus maximus (‘Riversdale’ and ‘Purple guinea’), Pennisetum purpureum (‘Taiwan’ and ‘Mott’), and Chrysopogon zizanioides were evaluated for forage production, quality, digestibility, and heavy metal content. It was shown that ‘Riversdale’ and ‘Purple guinea’ cultivars had relatively stable production for over four years, with the crude protein content of all grass types remaining relatively low (<6%), apart from ‘Mott’ cultivar, which had a crude protein content of 10%. The Pb concentration in the plants remained below the permitted limits for ruminants. In the post-tin mining site, ‘Riversdale’ and ‘Purple guinea’ cultivars showed potential for development. It is concluded that mined land can be replanted with forage crops for phytoremediation purposes. ‘Purple guinea’ and ‘Riversdale’ cultivars emerge as potential livestock feed sources on ex-mining land due to their four-year productive stability and low lead (Pb) concentration in their shoots, which falls below the safe threshold for cattle.

Influence of land-use types and topographic slopes on the physico-chemical characteristics of soils in Northwestern Ethiopia

AimsThis study examines the effects of land-use types and slope position on selected soil physico-chemical properties in the Ageza Watershed, Northwestern Ethiopia, focusing on soil fertility depletion and its impact on agricultural productivity.Materials and methodsThe experiment utilized a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications, involving three land-use types and slope positions. A total of 27 soil samples (both disturbed and undisturbed) were collected, prepared, and analyzed for selected physico-chemical properties following standard laboratory procedures. Data were analyzed using two-way ANOVA with SAS software.ResultsSignificant variations in most soil physico-chemical properties were observed across land-use types and slope positions. Soil bulk density, organic carbon (OC), total nitrogen (TN), available phosphorus (Av. P), cation exchange capacity (CEC), and exchangeable bases significantly (P ≤ 0.001) differed among the land-use types and slope positions. The main effects showed significant (P ≤ 0.05) differences in sand, silt, and clay contents across the land-use types. However, pH did not show significant differences (P > 0.05). Soil bulk density, silt content, Av. P, exchangeable bases, and CEC all showed significant (P ≤ 0.01) differences among the slope positions. Forest land had the highest values for clay (46.11%), OC (6.08%), Av. P (20.60 mg/kg), CEC (33.89 cmol (+) kg-¹), and exchangeable cations: Ca²+ (23.72 cmol (+) kg-¹), Mg²+ (4.40 cmol (+) kg-¹), K+ (1.18 cmol (+) kg-¹), and Na+ (0.77 cmol (+) kg-¹). Grazing land exhibited higher silt and bulk density, while cultivated land had higher sand content. Lower slope positions recorded the highest values for clay (47.33%), silt (20.77%), pH (4.90), Av. P (16.61 mg/kg), Ca²+ (20.10 cmol (+) kg-¹), Mg²+ (3.73 cmol (+) kg-¹), K+ (1.00 cmol (+) kg-¹), Na+ (0.66 cmol (+) kg-¹), and CEC (28.71 cmol (+) kg-¹), while bulk density was higher in the upper slope position.ConclusionLand-use types and slope positions significantly influence variations in soil physico-chemical properties and overall soil fertility status. Forest preservation and management are essential to improve the soil fertility in this region.

Effects of NPS Fertilizer Rate on Yield and Yield Components of Bread Wheat Production in Degem District, North Shewa Zone, Oromia, Ethiopia

Productivity of wheat was low due to depleted soil fertility and the blanket use of fertilizers. Fertilizer is the most vital input, contributing significantly to final wheat yields although wheat yields have long been low due to a lack of soil test-based site-specific fertilizer recommendations. This study aimed to determine an economically appropriate rate of NPS fertilizer based on calibrated Phosphorus for bread wheat production in the Degem district. The experiments laid out in randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications. The treatments were based on already determined Phosphorous critical and requirement factors and consisted of 100% Pc from TSP fertilizer, 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% Pc from NPS fertilizer and control (without fertilizer). The phosphorus requirement factor (Pf) (5.85), phosphorus critical (Pc) (22 ppm), and optimum nitrogen optimum nitrogen (92 kg ha<sup>-1</sup>) were used from previous studies. Improved bread wheat variety senete was used at 150 kg/ ha seeds rate. The results of a statistical analysis of variance demonstrated that NPS fertilizer rates based on calibrated phosphorus had significant effects on bread wheat production. Partial budget analysis shows the maximum net benefit (101,570.65 Birr ha<sup>-1</sup>) with an acceptable marginal rate of return (MRR) (932’52 %) through the application of 75% of Pc from NPS with optimum nitrogen fertilizer use. Consequently, 75% Pc from NPS should be used in the Degem district for bread wheat production, with the optimum nitrogen. Thus, further scaled-up and demonstration of the technologies for bread wheat production in the Degem district.

Soil Fertility Depletion is not a Credible Mechanism for Population Boom/Bust Cycles in Early Agricultural Societies

Soil Fertility Depletion is not a Credible Mechanism for Population Boom/Bust Cycles in Early Agricultural Societies

Soil Erosion Analysis with GIS: A Case Study of Oued Sly Catchment, Northern Algeria

Soil erosion is a process that involves the detachment and transportation of soil particles by water, presenting notable challenges of the depletion of soil fertility, diminished agricultural productivity, and consequences for water reservoirs. The integration of Geographic Information System (GIS) and modeling techniques provides a valuable platform for assessing and addressing soil water erosion. This study specifically examines the risk of soil water erosion in the Oued Sly catchment within the Middle Cheliff watershed in northern Algeria. Employing the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) and thematic maps, the research evaluates the key factors influencing erosion. Results reveal that the catchment generally experiences low to moderate erosion levels, averaging 23.4 to 40 t ha-1 yr-1 across 90.7% of the total area. However, around 9.3% of the catchment exhibits higher erosion rates exceeding 40 t ha-1 yr-1. These findings offer valuable insights for informed watershed management and strategies to mitigate soil water erosion in comparable regions

An Empirical Analysis of Factors Affecting China's Comprehensive Grain Production Capacity

China, with the largest population in the world, is also the largest grain consumer. Grain security is fundamental to national welfare and the economy, playing a crucial role in socioeconomic development. Since the reform and opening-up, China's grain output has doubled, successfully overcoming the global grain crisis in 2006 and the global food crisis caused by the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020. However, we cannot be overly optimistic; we must realize that China's grain output growth has relied on soil fertility depletion and excessive pesticide and fertilizer usage, putting significant pressure on the environment. This paper analyzes the factors influencing China's grain output based on data from 1980 to 2020. Through this, it reflects the comprehensive grain production capacity and offers feasible suggestions based on the findings. The analysis is carried out from both theoretical and empirical perspectives. On the theoretical side, the paper considers the impact of variables such as the area of irrigated arable land (X1, in thousand hectares), total agricultural machinery power (X2, in ten thousand kilowatts), grain crop sowing area (X3, in thousand hectares), fertilizer use (X4, in ten thousand tons), and natural population growth rate (X5, in percentage) on grain output. On the empirical side, five grain-related indicators are selected for principal component analysis, and the model is tested using Eviews. The relative importance of factors affecting comprehensive grain production capacity varies with different stages of grain production and development. Finally, the paper offers recommendations for improving China's comprehensive grain production capacity based on the research findings.

Effect of Tillage, Crops Residues and Crops Management Practices on Runoff Erosion, Soil Loss and Soil Properties in Ethiopa: Review

The conducted investigations showed that tillage practices with crop residue and proper cropping systems protect loss of soil from runoff erosion which depletes soil nutrients and affects soil physical and chemical properties. The review was conducted with aim of reviewing the effect of tillage, crops residues and crops management practices on runoff, soil loss and soil properties in Ethiopia. The three years study conducted in the Upper Blue Nile basin of Northwestern Ethiopia showed that reduced tillage reduced soil loss over conventional tillage, row planting reduced soil loss over broadcast planting, without trampling reduced soil loss over with trampling planting, and the sediment concentration was ranged from 0.01 to 5.37g/L and total soil loss was 0.20 to 0.50t/ha. The study conducted in the humid highlands of Ethiopia showed that the lower average soil loss was 16 t/ha.yr under zero tillage with crop residue and maximum was 30 t/ha.yr in conventional tillage without crop residue. The investigation indicated that zero tillage with maize soya bean intercrop, maize rotation, continuous maize and continuous soya bean improved soil properties than conventional tillage system. The investigation which was carried out to evaluate the effects of tillage and cropping system on soil properties showed that enrichment ratio ≤1 under no tillage with intercropping and no tillage with mulch reduce nutrient losses and enrichment ratio. The study conducted at Derashe and Arba Minch Zuriya in Ethiopia showed that some selected properties were statistically significant (P<0.05) and conservation tillage is favored for soil management relative to conventional tillage. Therefore, tillage practices like zero tillage and minimum tillage with crop residue management like mulching and crop management such as intercropping and crop rotation reduce surface runoff erosion, soil loss and soil fertility depletion, but additional continual research is needed to reveal trends in tillage, crops residues and crops management.

Sustainable soil health and agricultural productivity with biochar-based indigenous organic fertilizers in acidic soils: insights from Northwestern Highlands of Ethiopia

Depletion of soil fertility in tropical regions is a pressing concern contributing to lower crop yields. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of biochar and co-composted biochar on acidic soil and the growth performance of teff (Eragrotis teff (Zucc.)) in the sub-tropical highlands of Ethiopia. Co-composted biochar was produced by mixing Acacia decurrens biochar with chicken litter and cow dung manure at different ratios of 100:0:0, 25:75:0, 15:85:0, and 25:0:75. Treatment impact on soil properties and crop yields were evaluated with applications of 0, 5, 10, and 20 t ha–1 in field trials. The study shows interaction effects of biochar-based amendments significantly (P < 0.001) improved soil bulk density (g/cm3), moisture content (%), pH, total nitrogen (%), total organic carbon (%), available phosphorus (mg/kg), cation exchange capacity (cmol ( +)/kg)) and teff yield. The application of 20 t ha–1 sole biochar significantly improved soil acidity by 0.99 units. Soil treated with 20 t ha–1 of BCLL and BCM resulted in notable increases in soil pH, ranging from 0.12 to 0.83 units for BCLL and 0.15 to 0.81 units for BCM. Soil treated with 20 t ha–1 BCLL showed a significant increase in tef grain yield, with improvements of 315%, 48%, 48%, and 84% compared to the control, compost, inorganic fertilizer, and sole biochar application, respectively. In conclusion, the application of 20 t ha–1 BCLL has significantly improved soil properties and crop yield. This emphasizes the need to expand the intervention to assist farmers facing similar soil fertility challenges.

Nutrient Uptake and Economics of Summer Greengram as Influenced by Residual Effect of Paddy Residues and Fertility Levels

Background: One of the main reasons for India’s decreased food production is the depletion of soil fertility. The primary causes of soil deterioration are lack of awareness among farmers and lack of land use regulations. By limiting the erosion and enhancing the nutrients available to the crops, conservation agriculture increases the organic matter content of the soil and contributes to the improvement of field conditions. But compared to conventional agriculture, the practise of conservation agriculture is less advanced. And also there is a dearth of research on the use of crop residues for the management of soil fertility. So this study was undertaken in order to examine the impacts of crop residue, inorganic fertilizers and cropping system as a component of an integrated crop residues and fertility management system on nutrient uptake and net returns of greengram. Methods: The experiment consists of strip plot design and was carried out during 2020-21 and 2021-22 under zero till conditions at college farm, Rajendranagar, PJTSAU to study the effect of previous crop residues and fertility levels on succeeding greengram. Result: According to the data, greengram absorbed more nutrients at various growing stages. The residual effect of incorporation of residues treated with microbial consortia composed of Trichoderma viridae, Aspergillus awamori and Phanerocheate spp. along with 300:100:100 kg ha-1 of N, P2O5 and K2O (125% RDF) and phosphorous supplied in the form of single super phosphate (SSP) resulted in significantly higher financial returns. In greengram, residue incorporated plots outperformed residue burning, removal and retention plots with 125% RDF in terms of nutrient uptake, as well as monetary returns like gross returns, net returns and B:C ratio. In a similar vein, yield in residue-incorporated plots was higher than it was in residue-removal and in-situ burning plots during summer, 2021 and 2022.

Internet of Things(IoT) Application for Crop Prediction and Fertilizer Suggestion Using Machine Learning Techniques

Abstract: Agriculture serves as the primary source of income globally, particularly in regions like the Indian subcontinent. However, modern challenges such as unpredictable weather patterns, water scarcity, and market fluctuations necessitate the adoption of advanced farming techniques. Soil fertility depletion, caused by various factors, further exacerbates these challenges, leading to decreased crop yields. To solve these problems, our project utilizes modern technology, specifically leveraging machine learning techniques. By integrating an NPK sensor with a web application, our goal is to give farmers practical insights into their soil's nutrient composition. Upon collecting nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and pH levels from the soil, these values are entered into the application. Compared to traditional farming methods, our project offers several advantages. Firstly, it empowers farmers with accurate and timely information about their soil's nutrient levels, giving them the ability to make wise decisions.

Harnessing the Power of Traditional Organic Formulations for Crop Growth and Microbial Harmony

The utilization of various agrochemicals in crop production technology leads to soil health and fertility depletion. Multiple measures have been taken to revitalize the health of polluted soil. In this context, organic agriculture has increased over the past few years to overcome the detrimental effects of extensive modern agricultural practices. Several traditional organic formulations, such as panchagavya, jeevamurtha, beejamurtha, bokashi, etc., are vital in converting polluted farmlands into organic. Various countries have their own organic formulations to improve crop growth and yield. These formulations are rich sources of many macro and micronutrients, growth-promoting phytohormones, and provide resistance against biotic and abiotic stresses. Apart from these benefits, these formulations consist of several groups of beneficial microorganisms that belong to the phyla Proteobacteria, Firmicutes, Bacteroides, and Actinobacteria, while some of the novel groups of microorganisms were also reported from the ingredients used in the preparation of these organic formulations. These microorganisms can solubilize nutrients such as phosphorous and zinc, oxidize sulfur, reduce nitrate, and are also involved in the production of indole acetic acid, ethylene reduction enzyme (1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid deaminase), and organic acids that promote plant growth and induce resistance in the plant system. Hence, the utilization of traditional organic formulations helps in the reclamation of environmental health without compromising crop yields. This review describes the importance of organic farming, the preparation and application of different types of traditional organic formulations in different countries, and the microbial composition and mechanism of growth promotion of different traditional organic formulations.

Sustainable practices in cocoa production. The role of certification schemes and farmer cooperatives

In Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana, many small-scale cocoa producers cultivate cocoa in unshaded or low-shaded plots, leading to challenges such as reduced biodiversity, soil fertility depletion, and increased soil erosion. To assess the adoption of sustainable agricultural practices in the cocoa sector, we develop a scale that incorporates dimensions of agroforestry, soil conservation, pest and disease management and farm sanitation. Using data from >1700 cocoa producers, we examine farmer participation in cooperatives and three main certification schemes (incl. Fairtrade, Rainforest Alliance and Organic) to understand their roles in promoting sustainable practices. We apply a multinomial endogenous switching regression model to control for potential selection bias and estimate the impact of participating in certification schemes, farmer cooperatives or both. In Côte d'Ivoire, econometric results show that joint participation in both a certification scheme and a farmer cooperative is associated with a significantly higher sustainability score. In Ghana, certification scheme membership shows the highest effect.