Demobilization And Reintegration Research Articles

Notes on Optimal Reintegration Contracts

ABSTRACT Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration (DDR) programs are known to be a necessary component to achieve sustainable peace after an armed conflict. The main goal of this type of program is to help the transition for former soldiers from war to a sustainable legal economic activity. However, due to weak institutions and poor design and implementation, such programs often result in many former soldiers ending up unemployed, in criminal activities, or returning to armed rebel groups. In this paper, I propose an optimal reintegration contract using tools from unemployment insurance literature. In this model, a principal (government) collects taxes from the community to fund a reintegration program that gives incentives to agents (insurgent soldiers) to leave war and search for a job. I describe how information asymmetries and the conditions of labor and crime markets shape the benefits scheme offered by the principal and the selection of insurgents who join the reintegration program.

Home Is Where the Heart Is: Identity, Return and the Toleka Bicycle Taxi Union in Congo’s Equateur

Abstract Since the end of the 2006 post-war transition, the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) and the international community have struggled to design, finance and implement a host of national and regional disarmament, demobilization and reintegration (DDR) programmes. The weak capacity of implementing institutions, widespread corruption, funding gaps, Western-driven processes and a misdiagnosis of local needs have all been raised as core reasons behind failures. Little is known about how processes of ex-combatant return shape and reshape public authority, where former combatants return to, how they negotiate and experience ‘return’ and how viable ways of life are successfully constituted post return. While many ex-combatants in the DRC continue to be re-recruited into militia groups, one group that has reintegrated successfully is the Toleka—a several-thousand-strong group of ex-combatants who returned (or remained) in the provincial capital of Mbandaka (Equateur province). The Toleka formed a bicycle-taxi organization and unionized its membership, providing protections and collective-bargaining authority to the group, while providing a public good. It also helped to reshape identities, produce a sense of civilian solidarity and provide a bridging function from life in the military. This article looks at how this organization was formed, how the former fighters identified and capitalized on a local need and the conditions that allowed them to successfully unionize and protect their rights as they re-entered civilian life. Based on extensive fieldwork and interviews, this article seeks to understand a case of ‘successful’ return in a region with few such successes.

NONVIOLENT COUNTERTERRORISM MEASURES AND INTERNAL SECURITY OF AFRICAN STATES: A REVIEW OF NIGERIA’S AMNESTY POLICY

This paper strived to unravel the impact of nonviolent counterterrorism measures on the internal security of African states with specific reference to Nigeria’s amnesty policy in Niger Delta region. The study adopted the rational choice theory of terrorism as its theoretical framework and derived its data from secondary sources which included official policy documents from, Nigeria’s amnesty office including textbooks, journal articles and internet materials etc. Data collected from these sources were analysed through qualitative method and content analysis. Findings from the study shows that nonviolent counterterrorism measures and strategies through post-conflict disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration (DDR) programmes have helped in resettling several ex-combatants and their families back to the society in several African states including Nigeria, Burundi, Rwanda, Liberia, the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) etc. In the same vein, the study observed that the use of military force (violent counterterrorism measures and strategies) by states has also helped to escalate and prolong conflicts in Africa. Some recommendations were made which included the need to strengthen civil-military relations especially in the area of intelligence gathering and dissemination. There is need for African states to also engage in counter-radicalization of their citizens through massive investments in education, public enlightenment and socio-economic development, and the provision of basic social amenities.

ENHANCING AFRICA’S INTERNAL SECURITY THROUGH NONVIOLENT MEASURES: AN ANALYSIS OF NIGERIA’S AMNESTY PROGRAMME

This paper stressed the need to enhance peace and internal security in Africa through non-violent measures and approaches with particular reference to Nigeria’s amnesty programme. The study adopted the basic human needs theory as its theoretical framework and derived its data from secondary sources. Data collected were analysed using the qualitative method. The study revealed that conflict resolution through nonviolent measures such as disarmament, demobilization and re-integration (DDR) programmes have helped to enhance sustainable peace and internal security in most African countries including Nigeria, Burundi, Rwanda etc. Further findings also show that the use of military force as a means of conflict resolution by some African states have helped to escalate and prolong conflicts in different parts of Africa. The need for good governance, rule of law and strict adherence to democratic principles by African leaders and states is also fundamental in the process of building peace, internal security and political stability in Africa.

Social solidarity as a dimension of transitional justice: the case of Cartography and Identification of Mass Graves in post-conflict Colombia

ABSTRACT The field of transitional justice lacks a comprehensive understanding to the role that social solidarity plays in transitional justice contexts. There is a lack of knowledge of the means through which victims can exercise their social agency to explore mechanisms of reparation beyond truth commissions, tribunals, and trials. This article argues that social solidarity is a crucial dimension and a novel perspective from which to develop transitional justice processes from a victims’ point of view in post-conflict societies. Employing a participative action research method, this article’s importance rests in the idea that Colombian victims’ groups from Eastern Antioquia view social solidarity as a crucial dimension of transitional justice in developing the project Cartography and Identification of Mass Graves. It establishes that this effort is a powerful novel mechanism to claim justice, reparation, recognition, and guarantees of non-recurrence from an unofficial angle. It demonstrates that comprehending social solidarity as a vital dimension of transitional justice stresses the importance of victims’ social agency to conduct collaborative collective actions in order to support inclusive processes of disarmament, demobilisation, and reintegration (DDR) beyond official agendas and narratives.

SIERRA LEONE: MAPPING THE DISARMAMENT, DEMOBILISATION-REMOBILISATION AND REINTEGRATION OF EX-COMBATANTS. PROSPECTS FOR SUSTAINABLE PEACE

Disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration (DDR) programmes are necessary in states that experience armed conflict. Several post-conflict societies are usually characterised by the activities of individuals who undermine state-building efforts and prefer to work against joint problem solving aimed at sustaining peace. The study explores the change and continuity in the DDR programme and prospects for sustainable peace in Sierra Leone. With primary and secondary sources, including key informant interview with a former Minister, the paper responds to these questions: To what extent did remobilisation undermine peace agreements? How were the weapons and ex-combatants controlled by the government? What were the lessons and challenges of the DDR programme? How are the stakeholders sustaining post-DDR peace at the community level? The success of the state-building was occasioned by the joint problem-solving approach adopted by the National Committee for Disarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration (NCDDR), ECOMOG troops, the UN Observer Mission in Sierra Leon, and other stakeholders at the community level. This paper stresses that the remobilisation of ex-combatants increased the intensity of the war which necessitated more external intervention to create enabling environment for state-building and security sector reforms. Sustaining peace in Sierra Leone demands continuous empowerment of youths and their active involvement in informal peace education. Post-DDR peacebuilding should be more youth-focused and development-oriented to prevent the resurgence of armed conflicts. Keywords:DDR, Ex-combatants, Peace agreement, Remobilisation, State building.

Reintegration of Al-Shabaab’s Defectors in Somalia: An Examination of Conditions for Successful Reintegration

This article attempts to examine an issue regarding the reintegration of disengaged Al-Shabaab combatants in Somalia. Nowadays, some countries have undergone current generation disarmament, demobilization and reintegration (DDR), known as third-generation DDR; in the Somali context, although DDR is designed to disengage and rehabilitate defectors of Al-Shabaab for their reintegration into society, in practice, its implementation is not preceded by conventional approaches to conventional DDR, and it has suffered from various problems and contradictions. Previous research and information on the subject are extremely limited, due to a severe security situation. Accordingly, the author conducted interviews in Somalia in 2016 and 2019 with disengaged combatants and community members, to examine conditions necessary for good reintegration. The findings of the interviews revealed a gap in understanding between ex-combatants and members of the community, which significantly undermines the prospect of successful reintegration. A detailed analysis of the findings firstly shows that two problems exist regarding rehabilitation: a lack of knowledge, and an absence of accountability and transparency; secondly, further associated problems, such as severe unemployment, unstable security, financial difficulty, and distrust of the current government, which has devastating consequences for reintegration.

DISARMAMENT, DEMOBILIZATION AND REINTEGRATION (DDR) PROBLEMS AND CHALLENGES IN AFRICA

The implementation of post conflict disarmament, demobilization and reintegration (DDR) programme is usually characterised by several problems and challenges at various stages hence, this paper examined DDR problems and challenges in Africa. The paper argues that DDR programmes can only be effective if it is conducted in line with approved international standards as enshrined in the Integrated, Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration Standards (IDDRS) manual. The study adopted the basic human needs theory as its theoretical framework and derived its data from secondary sources. The data collected were analysed qualitatively since the study was a descriptive study. The study revealed that DDR programme is a post-conflict nonviolent conflict resolution framework which been applied in several African countries including Nigeria, Angola, Liberia etc. Findings from the study also shows that the implementation of DDR programme in Africa is faced with series of challenges yet it has helped in transforming and resettling several ex-combatants and warlords back to normal civil society. Thus, for any DDR programme to be effective, attention must be paid to monitoring, supervision and the general welfare needs of ex-combatants and trainees in order to build trust and confidence from all the parties and stakeholders.

Disarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration of Armed Groups in Post-war Sri Lanka: A Study based on Koralaipattu South Divisional Secretariat Division in Eastern Sri Lanka

This article generally focuses on the process of Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration (DDR) which are essential to restore sustainable peace in the post-war scenario. The DDR is one of the significant aspects of the process of post-war peacebuilding. In most of the cases, this process has implemented with the assistance of foreign governments and international or regional institutions. However, the circumstances under which the Government of Sri Lanka happened to take over the sole responsibility for implementing the DDR process have raised serious concerns both at the local and international level. Hence, this article attempts to conduct a detailed inquiry of the DDR process implemented in Sri Lanka after the end of the civil war. This article followed a descriptive method of investigation. The findings of the study show that the DDR process was not fully implemented in a broad manner in the Sri Lankan context, but only served as a continuation of the military victory over the LTTE. In particular, not much attention was paid to disarming and demobilizing the armed groups, and only the so-called DDR process took place without international assistance and supervision.

The credible commitment problem and multiple armed groups: FARC perceptions of insecurity during disarmament in the Colombian peace process

ABSTRACT Insecurities associated with the credible commitment problem during disarmament, demobilisation, and reintegration (DDR) processes are usually examined within a dyadic relationship between the government and a rebel group, ignoring how these insecurities play themselves out in the context of multiple warring parties. In addition, most studies on these dynamics take an overview macro-perspective, leaving out micro-dynamics such as how insecurity is experienced by those undertaking the disarmament process. This paper examines FARC members’ perception of insecurity and threat during the disarmament process in Colombia in the context of multiple armed groups. Drawing on semi-structured interviews with FARC combatants in three different demobilisation camps during the process of disarmament, this paper sheds light on how credible commitment problems between the FARC and the Colombian government were influenced by the presence of additional armed actors and how associated insecurities are perceived by combatants who are disarming vis-à-vis various armed actors.

From gender-blind to gender-transformative reintegration: women’s experiences with social reintegration in Guatemala

ABSTRACT Disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration (DDR) processes have become a standard component of international peace and security programming. Yet, in spite of increasing attention to the need for gender-sensitive DDR in policy and academic debates, the stereotypical ways in which female ex-combatants have traditionally been addressed have led to inadequate gendered reintegration policies. This article describes the effects of a gender-blind reintegration process on female ex-combatants’ experiences of long-term social reintegration in Guatemala. Social reintegration is a profoundly gendered process, which involves the rebuilding of civilian identities, social relationships, and trust between social groups. Based on in-depth interviews with female ex-combatants, this article describes how the absence of gender-sensitive reintegration strategies produced various problems for women. They faced difficulties in their emotional and family relationships, leading to mental health struggles and even violence, as well as persistent stigma which produced anxiety and challenges in the labor market. The article concludes with suggestions for making reintegration a gender-transformative process, by crossing the private–public divide, increasing collective strategies, and better aligning with transitional justice processes.

AN ASSESSMENT ROLE OF AMISOM IN THE PEACEBUILDING PROCESS IN SOMALIA: A STUDY

Purpose of the study: The aim of this study is to examine the role of AMISOM in Somalia's peacebuilding process in terms of disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration (DDR) and reconciliation among Somali clans.
 Methodology: This study uses a descriptive design with document analysis to attain the research objectives. Secondary data is used. The data are collected from books, articles, journals, and literature on peacebuilding.
 Main findings: The results show that AMISOM has no significant role in disarming, demobilizing, and reintegrating clan militias into communities. The AMISOM reconciliation process has not succeeded to bring Somalis together to determine how key issues are negotiated.
 Application of this study: This research is useful for peacebuilding practitioners and government/policymakers in identifying the drivers, causes of armed conflicts in Somalia.
 Novelty and originality: While other studies focused on the impact of power-sharing in rebuilding the Somalia government, the present study examines the impact of DDR, tailored with reconciliation in clan co-existence and silencing clan conflicts.

AN ASSESSMENT ROLE OF AMISOM IN THE PEACEBUILDING PROCESS IN SOMALIA: A STUDY

Purpose of the study: The aim of this study is to examine the role of AMISOM in Somalia's peacebuilding process in terms of disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration (DDR) and reconciliation among Somali clans. Methodology: This study uses a descriptive design with document analysis to attain the research objectives. Secondary data is used. The data are collected from books, articles, journals, and literature on peacebuilding. Main findings: The results show that AMISOM has no significant role in disarming, demobilizing, and reintegrating clan militias into communities. The AMISOM reconciliation process has not succeeded to bring Somalis together to determine how key issues are negotiated. Application of this study: This research is useful for peacebuilding practitioners and government/policymakers in identifying the drivers, causes of armed conflicts in Somalia. Novelty and originality: While other studies focused on the impact of power-sharing in rebuilding the Somalia government, the present study examines the impact of DDR, tailored with reconciliation in clan co-existence and silencing clan conflicts.

Disarmament, Demobilisation, and Reintegration: Analysing the Outcomes of Nigeria’s Post-Amnesty Programme

Disarmament, demobilisation, and reintegration (DDR) programmes are an essential part of most contemporary post-conflict peacebuilding processes, but they are seldom the subject of academic analysis. In this study, we seek to reduce this gap by examining the Post-Amnesty Programme (PAP) introduced in Nigeria in 2009. Our analysis shows that the programme contributed to the reduction of small arms and light weapons (SALW), fewer attacks on oil infrastructure and kidnapping of expatriates, and improved human capacity development. However, the programme has been ineffective in reintegrating ex-militants into civilian life because of serious shortcomings in its design as well as the extremely difficult implementation environment. In addition, the programme has proved to be hugely expensive. Despite these serious shortcomings, the Federal Government of Nigeria cannot simply terminate the programme because this will increase the risk that ex-militants enrolled in the programme will reignite the violent insurgency against the Nigerian state and international oil companies. The study concludes by reflecting on how this challenging situation can be resolved.

Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration – An underdeveloped diplomatic tool in Yemen

Abstract Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration (DDR) is the process of removing weapons from members of armed groups, detaching those ex-combatants from their groups and helping them to safely return to normal society. DDR has great potential to deliver significant peace benefits to communities undergoing conflict. As it has evolved, UN DDR has broadened in scope and now has the committed aim of ensuring linkages with political processes as one of its strategic priorities. With regard to the situation in Yemen, however, the earliest UN Yemen DDR advisory forums singularly misunderstood the breadth of UN DDR and indeed advocated for a halt to any DDR initiatives taking place in Yemen prior to the signing of a peace accord. In addition, there was a lack of sensitization of other UN agencies or key stakeholders to the possibilities of Pre-DDR, PDR or CVR. This has therefore led to the near absent or inadequate planning by the UN for both DDR and related stabilization efforts in Yemen. This is seemingly a missed opportunity and at odds with bringing the benefits of DDR to the people of Yemen as the UN has in other countries experiencing protracted conflict.

Commentary: Push and Pull Factors and the Reintegration of Children in the DRC

The recruitment and use of child soldiers creates a lasting tear in society, and none so severely as the civil war in the Democratic Republic of Congo. It is estimated that there are 310,000 children who are associated or formerly associated with armed forces or groups. Many (both girls and boys) experience sexual violence prior, during and/or following their association. As Arpita Mitra described in her paper, the scale of the tragedy is both widespread and brutal. She argues that despite the huge sums of financial assistance poured into the area for Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration (DDR) programming, the implementation has failed to meet its goals.

Female Combatants in Postconflict Processes: Understanding the Roots of Exclusion

AbstractResearch on contemporary internal armed conflicts has consistently shown that women are active in most armed insurgencies, in groups with varied ideologies, and in every region of the world. However, scholarship from feminist security studies shows that, not only are women still generally underrepresented in peace processes, but women affiliated with rebel groups in particular are more likely to be excluded from disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration (DDR) efforts. Closing this gap is a necessary next step for improving the security of women. This article draws on feminist theory and feminist security studies literature to highlight four factors that contribute to the exclusion of insurgent women from DDR efforts: attributions of agency, gendered hierarchy within groups, the tendency to collapse complex intersectionalities, and the pressure for patriarchal reordering after conflict. Drawing on selected cases, I illustrate each of these factors at work and discuss the implications for female ex-combatants, policy-makers, and scholars.

Concealing former identity to be accepted after the demobilization process in Colombia: A real reintegration in a post conflict scenario?

Disarmament, demobilization and reintegration (DDR) processes underlie the issue of the adaptation of former combatants into civilian life, as well as their acceptance by the civilian population. In an ongoing conflict scenario like Colombia’s, some factors such as civilian hostility and discrimination can lead former combatants to opt for defensive strategies such as concealing their former identity or taking up arms again. Until 2016, 58’000 combatants tried to rebuild their lives in civil society under a process where concealing their former combatant identity was necessary for reintegration. This paper contributes with original data on concealing identities in DDR processes, from a field study conducted in 2014 in Colombia with former members of guerrillas’ group (FARC and ELN) and paramilitaries’ group (AUC) in four different regions in the country (N = 201). We study the factors that determine concealing the former combatant identity and its effects on reintegration. The voluntary demobilization and the pride of having belonged to an armed group decrease the frequency of concealing the former identity. Otherwise, a hostile civilian community’s reception increases the level of concealing. Contrary to literature on intragroup relations and on social reintegration and reconciliation, our results reveal that concealing one’s past seems to indirectly permit a better integration, with a higher identification with civilian life. Results are discussed with reference to social identity theory, reintegration, and reconciliation literature, regarding the limits of reintegration processes in an ongoing conflict scenario.

Gender dimensions of DDR – beyond victimization and dehumanization: tracking the thematic

ABSTRACT In much of the early literature on gender dimensions of disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration (DDR) processes – from the 1980s and 1990s – the focus was on women as victims in conflict and DDR processes. This article reviews the literature on gender dimensions of DDR processes, exploring its many different topics – such as discussions of the definition of combatants, the political economy of DDR processes, group identity, cultural contexts, and masculinity – while focusing the discussion on the representation of female and male combatants of armed groups along the victim–actor axis. It furthermore analyzes the consequences of these representations for the way in which DDR processes are structured, and for who is allowed to participate in them. Finally, the article questions the push toward normalization in DDR processes and the neglect of progressive changes in gender relations within armed groups during war.

Everyday realities of reintegration: experiences of Maoist ‘verified’ women ex-combatants in the aftermath of war in Nepal

ABSTRACTGlobal studies of women’s experiences in the disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration (DDR) process have explored its implications for women in the post-war period. Scholars have also already pointed out that ex-combatants in Nepal are facing difficulties in the reintegration period. This paper examines in particular the consequences of the DDR process for so-called Maoist ‘verified’ women ex-combatants, those who were formally acknowledged as former Maoist combatants and have experienced the entire DDR process. The paper asks how they experienced this process and how it shaped their post-conflict options. The paper first problematises the idea of a ‘return to normalcy’ and, second, shows how female ex-combatants suffered multiple forms of marginalisation as they sought to give new shape to their lives. I argue that this is in part due to the lack of a gender-inclusive framework in the DDR policy in Nepal and the failure to take into account the voices of women ex-combatants.