Anticancer Drug Delivery Research Articles

Formation of amygdalin/β-cyclodextrin derivatives inclusion complexes for anticancer activity assessment in human cervical carcinoma HeLa cell line

Nanoencapsulation has gained considerable attention because of its unique features and advantages in anticancer drug delivery. Amygdalin (AMY) is an anticancer compound, showing limitations in its applications by low stability. Herein, the inclusion complexes (ICs) of AMY with β-cyclodextrin (βCD), and its derivatives such as 2-hydroxypropyl-βCD (HPβCD) and methyl-βCD (MβCD) were fabricated. The fabricated AMY/CD-ICs were thoroughly evaluated using Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, powder X-ray diffraction, thermogravimetric/differential thermal analysis, proton nuclear magnetic resonance, ultraviolet–visible diffuse reflectance spectroscopy, and photoluminescence techniques. Double reciprocal profile study of the absorption and fluorescence spectra revealed that the AMY formed the ICs with βCD derivatives at a guest/host stoichiometric ratio of 1/1. The thermal stability of AMY was enhanced as the IC formation aid observed by the shift of thermal degradation temperature of AMY from the range of ∼ 220–250 °C to > 295 °C. Theoretical analyses of the energetic, electronic, and global reactivity parameters of the AMY/CD-ICs were evaluated using the PM3 method. Further assessment of the dissolution diagrams of AMY/CD-ICs revealed a burst release profile. In addition, cell toxicity was evaluated using the MTT assay, and the results showed that AMY/CD-ICs had significantly more efficacious in inhibiting HeLa cancer cells than AMY. These results proved that the IC formations with CDs significantly enhanced the anticancer activity of AMY.

Surface charge accumulation of functionalized carbonized polymer dots selectively induces lysosomal membrane permeabilization of breast cancer cells

Lysosomal membrane permeabilization (LMP) has become an attractive strategy in tumor therapy. However, non-specific cytotoxicity caused by LMP remains a challenge; whether lysosomal-dependent autophagy process affected by lysosomal damage is still unclear. Here, we provide a carbonized polymer dots (CPDs)-based lysosomal targeted nano-strategy that mediates specific cytotoxicity to breast cancer cells by inducing LMP and disruption of autophagy degradation. CPDs functionalized via covalent conjugation with PpIX modified cathepsin D (CTSD) specific substrate peptide (CPDs-PP) were designed to achieve the selectivity to breast cancer cells. The effects and underlying mechanism of CPDs-PP on lysosomal membrane integrity and autophagic flux were determined. CPDs-PP with pH-dependent protonation and CTSD-responsive surface positive charge accumulation property at specific pH were obtained. Conversion of CPDs-PP to CPDs-P and ratiometric green–red fluorescence switching were observed in breast cancer cells with high expression of CTSD. It has been confirmed that CPDs-PP induced LMP and autophagic flux blockage of breast cancer cells. Lysosomal lipid accumulation was demonstrated to be the potential mechanism. CPDs-PP-induced LMP exhibited selective cytotoxicity to adherent tumor cells and tumor spheres, which was furtherly enhanced by spatiotemporal controlled lysosomal specific photodamage. This strategy offers promise for utilization of lysosome-targeting nanocarriers for anti-cancer pro-drugs and drug delivery systems.

Enhanced anti-breast cancer activity of green synthesized selenium nanoparticles by PEGylation: induction of apoptosis and potential anticancer drug delivery system

Breast cancer is a disease associated with high morbidity and mortality rates worldwide. The potential use of biogenic nanoparticles as alternative anticancer agents has been immensely acknowledged in several studies, particularly selenium nanoparticles (SeNPs). Nanoparticles were synthesised using the aqueous extract of Moringa peregrine (MPM-SeNPs) and were PEGylated (PEG-MPM-SeNPs). MPM-SeNPs were characterised by chemical and physical techniques. The successful capping of MPM-SeNPs with PEG was confirmed by spectrophotometric measurements and via Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) analysis. Furthermore, the effect of PEGylation of MPM-SeNPs on enhancing their anti-breast cancer activity and as a drug delivery agent was evaluated. Therefore, the loading efficiency and release of DOX at different pH values were measured; the antiproliferative activity of PEG-MPM-SeNPs against the adenocarcinoma breast cancer cell line (MDA-MB-231) was evaluated and compared with that of biogenic MPM-SeNPs and DOX-conjugated PEG-MPM-SeNPs. PEG-MPM-SeNPs and DOX-PEG-MPM-SeNPs had reduced IC50 values compared to MPM-SeNPs; IC50 of 11.54 ± 1.74 and 31.27 ± 2.9 μg mL−1 compared to 71.4 ± 3.4 μg mL−1, respectively. MPM-SeNPs and PEG-MPM-SeNPs caused apoptosis to MDA-MB-231 cells with a significant decrease in the mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), increase in the released cytochrome C (Cyt C), and activation of caspase-3/9 (P < 0.05). Linking DOX to PEG-MPM-SeNPs led to an increase in caspase-3/8 concentrations and an increase in the released Cyt C, but there were non-significant differences in MMP (P > 0.1) between treated and untreated control cancer cells. MPM-SeNPs and PEG-MPM-SeNPs caused apoptotic reactions via an intrinsic pathway, while linking DOX to PEG-MPM-SeNPs caused apoptosis in cancer cells through an extrinsic pathway.

Efficient delivery of anticancer drugs using functionalized-Ag-decorated Fe3O4@SiO2 nanocarrier with folic acid and β-cyclodextrin

Nanocarrier surface functionalization has been widely regarded as a promising approach for achieving precise and targeted drug delivery systems. In this work, the fabrication of functionalized-Ag-decorated Fe3O4@SiO2 (Fe3O4@SiO2-Ag) nanocarriers with folic acid (FA) and β-cyclodextrin (BCD) exhibit a remarkable capacity for delivering two types of anticancer drugs, i.e., doxorubicin (DOX) and epirubicin (EPI), into cancer cells. The effective functionalization of Fe3O4@SiO2-Ag nanoparticles has been achieved through the use of cysteine (Cys) as an anchor for attaching FA and BCD via EDC-NHS coupling and Steglich esterification methods, respectively. The findings indicate that surface functionalization had no significant impact on the physicochemical characteristics of the nanoparticles. However, it notably affected DOX and EPI loading and release efficiency. The electrostatic conjugation of DOX/EPI onto the surface of Fe3O4@SiO2-Ag/Cys/FA and Fe3O4@SiO2-Ag/Cys/BCD exhibited maximum loading efficiency of 50–60% at concentration ratio of DOX/EPI to nanoparticles of 1:14. These nanocarriers also achieved an 40–47% DOX/EPI release over 36 days. Furthermore, the drug-loaded functionalized-nanocarrier showed cytotoxic effects on SK-MEL-2 cells, as demonstrated by an in vitro MTT assay. This suggests that the as-prepared functionalized-nanoparticles have promise as a carrier for the efficient anticancer drugs.

Nanoparticle-Mediated Drug Delivery Systems for Precision Targeting in Oncology.

Nanotechnology has emerged as a transformative force in oncology, facilitating advancements in site-specific cancer therapy and personalized oncomedicine. The development of nanomedicines explicitly targeted to cancer cells represents a pivotal breakthrough, allowing the development of precise interventions. These cancer-cell-targeted nanomedicines operate within the intricate milieu of the tumour microenvironment, further enhancing their therapeutic efficacy. This comprehensive review provides a contemporary perspective on precision cancer medicine and underscores the critical role of nanotechnology in advancing site-specific cancer therapy and personalized oncomedicine. It explores the categorization of nanoparticle types, distinguishing between organic and inorganic variants, and examines their significance in the targeted delivery of anticancer drugs. Current insights into the strategies for developing actively targeted nanomedicines across various cancer types are also provided, thus addressing relevant challenges associated with drug delivery barriers. Promising future directions in personalized cancer nanomedicine approaches are delivered, emphasising the imperative for continued optimization of nanocarriers in precision cancer medicine. The discussion underscores translational research's need to enhance cancer patients' outcomes by refining nanocarrier technologies in nanotechnology-driven, site-specific cancer therapy.

Chitosan-based pH-sensitive semi-interpenetrating network nanoparticles as a sustained release matrix for anticancer drug delivery

Chitosan-based nanoparticles have demonstrated a growing potential for use in the drug delivery systems due to their remarkable versatility. To enhance the effectiveness of chitosan-based nanoparticles for stimulus-responsive anticancer drug delivery, a novel pH-sensitive semi-interpenetrating networks (semi-IPN) of chitosan-poly(1-vinyl imidazole) (CS-PVIm) and Chitosan-poly(methacrylic-acid) (CS-PMAA) nanoparticles were synthesized through free radical polymerization. The semi-IPN nanoparticles were analyzed to evaluate their suitability as drug carrier. The SEM analysis revealed that the nanoparticles were spherical and within the nanoscale size range. The average particle size measured by DLS for CS-PMAA nanoparticles was 107.9 nm without the drug and 175.2 nm after the drug encapsulation. CS-PVIm-nanoparticles had an average size of 138.32 nm, which was increased to 165.84 nm after the drug loading. ATR-FTIR confirmed the formation of CS-PVIm and CS-PMAA nanoparticles. Cytotoxicity analysis showed that the nanoparticles are biocompatible, with over 95 % of cell survival for the HeLa cell lines. Further, Doxorubicin-hydrochloride (Dox) loaded nanoparticles exhibited sustained drug release caused by the protonation and deprotonation of their functional groups based on pH change. The CS-PVIm-nanoparticles showed encapsulation efficiency (EE) of 57 %, whereas EE of CS-PMAA-nanoparticles were 52 %, respectively. This research presents a straightforward method for producing intelligent pH-responsive semi-IPN-nanoparticles tailored for anticancer drug delivery.

Preparation and evaluation of fenbendazole methyl-β-cyclodextrin inclusion complexes

As an orally effective benzimidazole anthelmintic agent, fenbendazole was not only widely used in agriculture and animal husbandry to prevent and treat parasites, but also shows anti-cancer effects against several types of cancer, exhibits anti-cancer effects in paclitaxel and doxorubicin-resistant cancer cells. However, fenbendazole’s poor in water solubility (0.3 µg/mL), limits its clinical applications. Even great efforts were made toward increasing its water solubility, the results were not significant to reach anti-cancer drug delivery requirement (5–10 mg/mL). Through single factor and orthogonal strategy, many complex conditions were designed and used to prepare the complexes, the inclusion complex with methyl-β-cyclodextrin with 29.2 % of inclusion rate and 89.5% of inclusion yield can increase drug’s water solubility to 20.21 mg/mL, which is the best result so far. Its structure was confirmed by differential scanning calorimetry, scanning electron microscopic image, 1D and 2D NMR spectra in D2O. In its in vitro pharmacokinetic study, fenbendazole was 75% released in 15 min., in its in vivo pharmacokinetic study, the bio-availabilities of fenbendazole, its major metabolic anthelmintic agent oxfendazole and its minor metabolic anthelmintic agent oxfendazole were increased to 138%, 149% and 169% respectively, which would allow for fewer drug doses to achieve the same therapeutic effect and suggest that the complex can be used as a potential anticancer agent.

Recent Advancements in Metallic Au- and Ag-Based Chitosan Nanocomposite Derivatives for Enhanced Anticancer Drug Delivery

The rapid advancements in nanotechnology in the field of nanomedicine have the potential to significantly enhance therapeutic strategies for cancer treatment. There is considerable promise for enhancing the efficacy of cancer therapy through the manufacture of innovative nanocomposite materials. Metallic nanoparticles have been found to enhance the release of anticancer medications that are loaded onto them, resulting in a sustained release, hence reducing the dosage required for drug administration and preventing their buildup in healthy cells. The combination of nanotechnology with biocompatible materials offers new prospects for the development of advanced therapies that exhibit enhanced selectivity, reduced adverse effects, and improved patient outcomes. Chitosan (CS), a polysaccharide possessing distinct physicochemical properties, exhibits favorable attributes for controlled drug delivery due to its biocompatibility and biodegradability. Chitosan nanocomposites exhibit heightened stability, improved biocompatibility, and prolonged release characteristics for anticancer medicines. The incorporation of gold (Au) nanoparticles into the chitosan nanocomposite results in the manifestation of photothermal characteristics, whereas the inclusion of silver (Ag) nanoparticles boosts the antibacterial capabilities of the synthesized nanocomposite. The objective of this review is to investigate the recent progress in the utilization of Ag and Au nanoparticles, or a combination thereof, within a chitosan matrix or its modified derivatives for the purpose of anticancer drug delivery. The research findings for the potential of a chitosan nanocomposite to deliver various anticancer drugs, such as doxorubicin, 5-Fluroacil, curcumin, paclitaxel, and 6-mercaptopurine, were investigated. Moreover, various modifications carried out on the chitosan matrix phase and the nanocomposite surfaces to enhance targeting selectivity, loading efficiency, and pH sensitivity were highlighted. In addition, challenges and perspectives that could motivate further research related to the applications of chitosan nanocomposites in cancer therapy were summarized.

Self-Immolative Domino Dendrimers as Anticancer-Drug Delivery Systems: A Review.

Worldwide cancer statistics have indicated about 20 million new cancer cases and over 10 million deaths in 2022 (according to data from the International Agency for Research on Cancer). One of the leading cancer treatment strategies is chemotherapy, using innovative drug delivery systems (DDSs). Self-immolative domino dendrimers (SIDendr) for triggered anti-cancer drugs appear to be a promising type of DDSs. The present review provides an up-to-date survey on the contemporary advancements in the field of SIDendr-based anti-cancer drug delivery systems (SIDendr-ac-DDSs) through an exhaustive analysis of the discovery and application of these materials in improving the pharmacological effectiveness of both novel and old drugs. In addition, this article discusses the designing, chemical structure, and targeting techniques, as well as the properties, of several SIDendr-based DDSs. Approaches for this type of targeted DDSs for anti-cancer drug release under a range of stimuli are also explored.

Computational assessment of the use of graphene-based nanosheets as PtII chemotherapeutics delivery systems.

Graphene is the newest form of elemental carbon and it is becoming rapidly a potential candidate in the framework of nano-bio research. Many reports confirm the successful use of graphene-based materials as carriers of anticancer drugs having relatively high loading capacities compared with other nanocarriers. Here, the outcomes of a systematic study of the adsorption behavior of FDA approved PtII drugs cisplatin, oxaliplatin, and carboplatin on surface models of pristine, holey, and nitrogen-doped holey graphene are reported. DFT investigations in water solvent have been carried out considering several initial orientations of the drugs with respect to the surfaces. Adsorption free energies, calculated including basis set superposition error (BSSE) corrections, result to be significantly negative for many of the drug@carrier adducts indicating that tested layers could be used as potential carriers for the delivery of anticancer PtII drugs. The reduced density gradient (RDG) analysis allows to show that many kinds of non-covalent interactions, including canonical H-bond, are responsible for the stabilization of the formed adducts.

Dual ionotropic crosslinked biopolymer magnetic nanocomposites as 5‐Fluorouracil nanocarrier for potential colorectal cancer treatment

AbstractThis study aimed to synthesize dual‐crosslinked chitosan‐alginate nanocomposites (Cs‐Alg/IO NCs) using green‐synthesized iron oxide nanoparticles (IO, Fe3O4 NPs) for drug delivery application. The NCs, formed via ionotropic gelation with sodium tripolyphosphate (TPP) and calcium chloride (CaCl2) as crosslinking agents for Cs and Alg, respectively, and further characterized for physiochemical properties. The presence of Fe3O4 NPs and 5‐Fluorouracil (5FU) increased hydrodynamic size (153.12 ± 0.57 to 207.64 ± 3.59 nm). Morphological studies revealed NC agglomeration within nanoscales. 5FU‐loaded Cs‐Alg/IO NCs (Cs‐Alg/IO 5FU NCs) exhibited superparamagnetic behavior and sustained drug release under various pH conditions. Cytotoxicity assays on colon cancer cells (HCT116 and HT‐29) and normal colon cells (CCD‐112) indicated higher cancer cell selectivity (selectivity index, SI = 1.91) in 2D models. Elevated IC50 values in 3D models were linked to lower drug loading capacity (LC) and encapsulation efficiency (EE). Overall, the study highlights the potential of dual‐crosslinked biopolymer NCs with green‐synthesized Fe3O4 NPs for developing an anticancer drug delivery system in colorectal cancer treatment.Highlights Synthesis of 5FU‐loaded dual crosslinked Cs‐Alg/IO NCs and Cs‐Alg IPN. Physicochemical characterization of cross‐linked magnetic nanocarriers. Investigation of sustained drug release using superparamagnetic nanocarriers. Evaluation of selective cytotoxicity for Cs‐Alg/IO 5FU NCs.

Zeolitic Imidazolate Frameworks Based Anticancer Drug Delivery System Associated with Dual Action of Surface Charge and Lewis Base Ligand

AbstractZeolitic imidazole frameworks (ZIFs), which combine the favorable characteristics of tunable porosity, controlled structure, and facile functionalization, are explored as a novel class of nanocarriers for biomedical applications. In this study, different ZIF materials are investigated, including ZIF‐8, ZIF‐67, ZIF‐90, ZIF‐92, and ZIF‐108, with the same sodalite topology as the adenosine‐5′‐triphosphate (ATP)‐triggered drug delivery systems. Results indicated that ZIF‐90 and ZIF‐108 displayed good biological compatibility and efficiently accumulated in the mitochondria through competitive coordination between the metal nodes of the ZIFs and ATP, suggesting efficient intracellular delivery. With further interactions between these metal ions and ATP, the encapsulated drugs are released from the ZIF nanoparticles, thereby achieving optimal anti‐tumor activity. Through a systematic evaluation of the physicochemical properties of different ZIFs, it demonstrates that the surface charges of ZIFs have a significant impact on the cytotoxicity of cells, whereas the Lewis basicity of imidazole‐based ligands plays an essential role in the competitive coordination between the metal ions and ATP. These findings provide a potential method for screening ZIFs based nanocarriers with minimal toxicity and explain the different delivery efficiencies of these materials with similar topologies.

Kinetic and Mechanism of Zerumbone Release from Cross-linked Gelatin-Zeolite Y Hybrid for Oral Anticancer Drug Delivery

A hybrid of zeolite Y-gelatin film as an oral dosage form for the natural anticancer drug was achieved by homogenously incorporating the drug-loaded zeolite Y into the gelatin solution. Drug ability was analyzed using computational and experimental approaches, drug encapsulation efficiency via the BET method, and possible interactions by FTIR analyses. Zerumbone released was done in both pH 1.2 and pH 7.4 mimicking the human gastrointestinal tract conditions for 24 hrs and subjected to kinetics study via suitable mathematical models to determine what governs the drug release with the results indicating that a sustained delivery of once-daily oral dosage form could be achieved.

Targeted Drug Delivery by MMAE Farnesyl-Bioconjugated Multivalent Chemically Self-Assembled Nanorings Induces Potent Receptor-Dependent Immunogenic Cell Death.

Antibody-drug conjugates, nanoparticles, and liposomes have been used for anticancer drug delivery. The success of targeted killing of cancer cells relies heavily on the selectivity of the drug delivery systems. In most systems, antibodies or their fragments were used as targeting ligands. In this study, we have investigated the potential for protein-based octomeric chemically self-assembled nanorings (CSANs) to be used for anticancer drug delivery. The CSANs are composed of a DHFR-DHFR fusion protein incorporating an EGFR-targeting fibronectin and the anticancer drug MMAE conjugated through a C-terminal farnesyl azide. The anti-EGFR-MMAE CSANs were shown to undergo rapid internalization and have potent cytotoxicity to cancer cells across a 9000-fold difference in EGFR expression. In addition, anti-EGFR-MMAE CSANs were shown to induce immunological cell death. Thus, multivalent and modular CSANs are a potential alternative anticancer drug delivery platform with the capability of targeting tumor cells with heterogeneous antigen expression while activating the anticancer immune response.

Emerging Trends in Hybrid Nanoparticles: Revolutionary Advances and Promising Biomedical Applications.

Modern nanostructures must fulfill a wide range of functions to be valuable, leading to the combination of various nano-objects into hierarchical assemblies. Hybrid Nanoparticles (HNPs), comprised of multiple types of nanoparticles, are emerging as nanoscale structures with versatile applications. HNPs offer enhanced medical benefits compared to basic combinations of distinct components. They address the limitations of traditional nanoparticle delivery systems, such as poor water solubility, nonspecific targeting, and suboptimal therapeutic outcomes. HNPs also facilitate the transition from anatomical to molecular imaging in lung cancer diagnosis, ensuring precision. In clinical settings, the selection of nanoplatforms with superior reproducibility, cost-effectiveness, easy preparation, and advanced functional and structural characteristics is paramount. This study aims toextensively examine hybrid nanoparticles, focusing on their classification, drug delivery mechanisms, properties of hybrid inorganic nanoparticles, advancements in hybrid nanoparticle technology, and their biomedical applications, particularly emphasizing the utilization of smart hybrid nanoparticles. PHNPs enable the delivery of numerous anticancer, anti-leishmanial, and antifungal drugs, enhancing cellular absorption, bioavailability, and targeted drug delivery while reducing toxic side effects.

Expression of Concern: pH-Responsive Anticancer Drug Delivery Systems: Insights into the Enhanced Adsorption and Release of DOX Drugs using Graphene Oxide as a Nanocarrier

Expression of Concern: pH-Responsive Anticancer Drug Delivery Systems: Insights into the Enhanced Adsorption and Release of DOX Drugs using Graphene Oxide as a Nanocarrier

Chitosan/Histidine nanoparticles for controlled curcumin delivery: A potential strategy in anticancer treatment

Cancer, a life-threatening disease influenced by environmental factors, evolving lifestyles, and dietary choices, necessitates potent and sustained therapeutic interventions. This research explores the potential of chitosan/histidine nanoparticles (CS/HIS-NPs) as a controlled delivery system for curcumin (CUR), a promising anticancer agent. CUR was efficiently incorporated into CS/HIS-NPs via ionic gelation using sodium tripolyphosphate (TPP) as crosslinker, and its impact was evaluated on Human liver adenocarcinoma (HEP G2) cells. Comprehensive analyses, including structural (Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and X-ray diffraction (XRD)) and morphological (Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM)) assessments, were conducted, revealing a robust encapsulation efficiency of 98.4 %. The nanoparticles exhibited an average size of 31.183 ± 13.822 nm for CS/HIS-NPs and 127.86 ± 44.344 nm for CUR-CS/HIS-NPs. Cytotoxicity assessments and in vitro release studies with CUR-CS/HIS-NPs demonstrated promising results, indicating the potential efficacy of the delivery system. This study introduces a novel approach to curcumin delivery and underscores the capability of CS/HIS-NPs as a sophisticated pharmaceutical carrier for sustained curcumin release. By utilizing a polymer matrix to govern release kinetics, chitosan/histidine nanoparticles emerge as a promising avenue for advancing anticancer drug delivery.

Surface Modification of Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles for Application in Targeted Delivery Systems of Antitumour Drugs.

The problem of tumour therapy has attracted the attention of many researchers for many decades. One of the promising strategies for the development of new dosage forms to improve oncology treatment efficacy and minimise side effects is the development of nanoparticle-based targeted transport systems for anticancer drugs. Among inorganic nanoparticles, mesoporous silica deserves special attention due to its outstanding surface properties and drug-loading capability. This review analyses the various factors affecting the cytotoxicity, cellular uptake, and biocompatibility of mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs), constituting a key aspect in the development of safe and effective drug delivery systems. Special attention is paid to technological approaches to chemically modifying MSNs to alter their surface properties. The stimuli that regulate drug release from nanoparticles are also discussed, contributing to the effective control of the delivery process in the body. The findings emphasise the importance of modifying MSNs with different surface functional groups, bio-recognisable molecules, and polymers for their potential use in anticancer drug delivery systems.

Engineered protein cages with enhanced extracellular drug release for elevated antitumor efficacy

Human heavy chain ferritin (HFn) protein cage has been explored as a nanocarrier for targeted anticancer drug delivery. Here, we introduced a matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs)-cleavable sequence into the DE loop of HFn, creating an MMP-responsive variant, MR-HFn, for localized and extracellular drug release. The crystal structure of MR-HFn revealed that the addition of the MMPs recognition sequence did not affect the self-assembly of HFn but presented a surface-exposed loop susceptible to MMPs cleavage. Biochemical analysis indicated that this engineered protein cage is responsive to MMPs, enabling the targeted release of encapsulated drugs. To evaluate the therapeutic potential of this engineered protein cage, monosubstituted β-carboxy phthalocyanine zinc (CPZ), a type of photosensitizer, was loaded inside this protein cage. The prepared CPZ@MR-HFn showed higher uptake and stronger phototoxicity in MMPs overexpressed tumor cells, as well as enhanced penetration into multicellular tumor spheroids compared with its counterpart CPZ@HFn in vitro. In vivo, CPZ@MR-HFn displayed a higher tumor inhibitory rate than CPZ@HFn under illumination. These results indicated that MR-HFn is a promising nanocarrier for anticancer drug delivery and the MMP-responsive strategy here can also be adapted for other stimuli.

Exploring the Therapeutic Potential of Vesicular Nanocarrier Systems for Elimination of Skin Cancer

Background:: Skin cancer, a common malignancy worldwide, has increased incidence and mortality. Thus, it is a public health issue and a significant illness burden, which increases treatment costs. Chemotherapy and surgery are used to treat skin cancer. However, conventional skin cancer treatments have several limitations, demanding the development of innovative, safe, and effective methods. To overcome these limitations of conventional topical dosage forms, many nanocarriers have been developed and tested for the targeted delivery of anticancer drugs. Objective:: The main objective of the present review was to discuss the utility of various vesicular nanocarrier systems to deliver anticancer drugs following topical administration to treat skin cancer. Methods:: For this review article, we scoured the scholarly literature using Science Direct, Google Scholar, and Pubmed. Discussion:: The vesicular drug delivery system has been intensively explored and developed as an alternative to conventional skin cancer drug delivery systems, especially for melanoma. They improve the penetration of anticancer drugs via the skin, reaching the cancer area with enough and killing cancer cells. Vesicles minimize skin irritation and drug degradation. This improves therapy efficacy and reduces systemic toxicity. Conclusion:: Utilizing the vesicular drug delivery system shows promise in treating skin cancer. Therefore, further research and inquiries are necessary to explore the therapeutic potential of these substances in treating skin cancer, intending to develop a personalized, efficient, and secure therapy approach for patients with this condition.