Number Of Deer Research Articles

Hunting bag statistics of wild mammals in Portugal (1989–2022): on the need to improve data report and compilation

Wildlife monitoring is key for the effective management of natural resources. Hunting-based data (e.g., hunting bag statistics) is an important source of information to overcome the financial constraints imposed to long-term monitoring. Here, taking advantage of three decades (1989–2022) of hunting bag statistics of wild mammals in Portugal, we present the trends and discuss the issues regarding nine game species (five wild ungulates, two carnivores and two lagomorphs). Our results show that hunting bag statistics mirror the general population trends of wild mammal populations at a national scale. The data reflects the increase in number and distribution of roe deer, red deer and wild boar, and the recent expansion experienced by the Egyptian mongoose. The decline in the numbers of European wild rabbit and Iberian hare harvested are also noticeable. Hunting-based data have been used in several research contexts; however, this information is usually affected by geographical, temporal and recording bias. Portugal is no exception. Engaging the interested stakeholders is pivotal to ensure data quality. By reporting reliable and systematically collected hunting data, game managers and wildlife researchers will be able to better understand the main drivers of population dynamics, adjust hunting bags towards sustainable yield and assess the ecological and socio-economic relevance of the hunting sector.

ОЦЕНКА ГЕНЕТИЧЕСКОЙ СТРУКТУРЫ СЕЛЬСКОХОЗЯЙСТВЕННЫХ ПОПУЛЯЦИЙ ОЛЕНЕЙ ЧУКОТСКОЙ И ЭВЕНСКОЙ ПОРОД КРАЙНЕГО СЕВЕРО-ВОСТОКА РОССИИ

The preservation of the allelofund and increasing the productivity of domestic reindeer in the Far North-East of Russia is currently an urgent problem against the background of a decrease in the number of livestock in agricultural populations. The research work was carried out during 2014-2023 in the reindeer herding farms of the Magadan region - Agricultural complex "Irbychan" and the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug - breeding farms of the Municipal Unitary Enterprise agricultural complex "Khatyrskoye", "Amguema". The total number of deer involved in the work was 17,356. The aim is to study the genetic structure of populations of Even and Chukchi breeds in domestic reindeer husbandry in the Far North-East of Russia. The plucked ears of deer served as the material for molecular genetic studies. The most common genotypes of the Even breed are those with loci in their composition №3 (240-330), №5 (350-430), №6 (440-520), №7 (520-570) and No. 9 (700-770). 99% of the Chukchi deer breed has a fragment with a length of 240-330 bp (locus No. 3). Loci No. 6 (440-520) and No. 7 (520-570) were found in 93% of individuals, locus No. 5 (350-430) – in 95%. The frequency of ISSR markers made it possible to determine the parameters of the general population for the Even and Chukchi rocks, which are characterized by polymorphism of all detected loci. Since individual DNA fragments were present in deer of all populations, it can be concluded that for the Even breed the spectrum consists of 3 amplicons No. 3, 5, 6, and for the Chukchi breed it consists of 4 amplicons: №3, №5, №6, №7 it is typical. The genetic variability of ISSR markers in populations indicates a significant similarity between them in most allelic frequencies, which confirms the common origin, economic and breeding use of Even and Chukchi deer. For the first time, long-term, long-term monitoring of the genetic characteristics of the populations of domestic reindeer of the Magadan region and Chukotka was carried out in a comparative aspect, which has urgent scientific and practical significance for further improvement of breeding work in reindeer husbandry.

Current Estimates of Key Deer Numbers on Sugarloaf and Cudjoe Keys

Current Estimates of Key Deer Numbers on Sugarloaf and Cudjoe Keys

Assessing hurricane impact on vegetation and endangered deer habitat using airborne lidar and multispectral images

In the lower Florida Keys, the endangered Florida Key deer and numerous other wildlife species inhabit a vulnerable island environment susceptible to storm surges and rising seawater due to low elevation and flat terrain. Timely and reliable assessment of vegetation damage from natural disasters, such as Hurricane Irma, is crucial for effective habitat management. The study’s overall objective is to examine Hurricane Irma’s impact on vegetation on No Name Key, Florida, using remote sensing. The study relates the area change in vegetation obtained from remote sensing analysis to Florida Key deer population changes following the storm. The methodology involved performing a thematic change detection analysis using the following data sources: (1) aerial multispectral images (for pre- and post-Hurricane), (2) airborne lidar data (for pre- and post-Hurricane), (3) an existing vegetation map, and (4) soil data. A Support Vector Machine (SVM) image classification algorithm was applied to pre- and post-storm input image stacks to create pre- and post-Hurricane Irma vegetation maps. We were then able to obtain the area change information (for various vegetation categories) by performing the change detection analysis of the 2 SVM-classified images. The differences in areas following the storm were calculated for 7 affected vegetation types. Using the area change information following Hurricane Irma, we estimated the number of deer supported by the storm-affected vegetation. These estimated deer numbers, based on the area differences in post-Hurricane Irma vegetation types, were compared to observed deer numbers collected during the post-Hurricane Irma Texas A&M Natural Resources Institute (NRI) deer field survey. The results showed the following: mangroves had the largest negative area changes (area loss), followed by pinelands, hardwoods/hammocks, developed areas, and buttonwoods. Freshwater marshes had the largest positive area changes (area gain). The deer's preferred vegetation areas had decreased post-Hurricane Irma, resulting in a reduced deer population compared to pre-storm numbers. The predicted number of the Key deer post-Hurricane Irma fell within a 95% confidence interval of the observed deer population from the post-storm field survey. The study findings and techniques could be applied to study climate change impact, especially sea level rise. This methodology can be valuable in assessing the impact of storms on other wildlife species in similar environments. The applications and methodology are especially relevant considering the increasing frequency and intensity of storm surges and the accelerating rate of sea level rise.

Modeling the impact of sea level rise on endangered deer habitat

Numerous unique flora and fauna inhabit the Lower Florida Keys, including the endangered Florida Key deer, found nowhere else. In this vulnerable habitat of flat islands with low elevation, accelerated sea level rise poses a threat. Predicting the impact of sea level rise on vegetation and wildlife is crucial. This study used 5 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) sea level rise scenarios to assess their effects on No Name Key, Florida. The goal was to estimate changes in the Florida Key deer population relative to sea level rise using a lidar-derived elevation data and a vegetation map. The method used 2 cases to model the sea level rise impact. In Case 1, total non-submerged area at current sea level was determined. Using 5 IPCC scenarios, a new total non-submerged land area was estimated, and deer numbers were predicted for each scenario. In Case 2, upward migration of coastal vegetation combined with the coastal squeeze process was modeled. A distinct elevation range for each vegetation type at the current sea level was determined. Vegetation ranges were redistributed based on respective elevation ranges in the sea level rise scenarios. Areas for each vegetation type were recalculated, and Key deer numbers were estimated for each sea level rise scenario. Results under the worst emission scenario showed the following: (1) for case 1, the land area was reduced to 30 % of the current land area, corresponding to having about 27 deer, and (2) for case 2, the land area was reduced to 70 % of the current land area, having about 54 deer on No Name Key. The results indicated reduced non-submerged land area and less upland vegetation, particularly hardwoods/hammocks, by the year 2100. As less land area is available, a decline in Key deer population is expected as sea levels rise. Since Key deer favor upland vegetation, habitat affected by sea level rise will likely support a smaller deer population. The findings emphasize the need for precise, timely predictions of sea level rise impacts and long-term conservation strategies. Specifically designed measures are required to protect and maintain endangered wildlife, such as the Florida Key deer, residing on these vulnerable islands.

Severely degraded high mountain vegetation recovers under different levels of wild herbivore grazing pressure, 1991–2021

Context It is important to understand the way in which wild herbivore grazing affects decadal vegetation dynamics after cessation of unnatural disturbances, especially in a context of climate change. Aims We investigated the decadal effects of different grazing regimes on treeless subalpine vegetation recovery from stock grazing and burning, on sites of different environmental character and initial state. Methods At each of four sites, two fenced areas that excluded mammalian herbivores, two that allowed in only rabbits and two grazed control plots were monitored every 5 years between 1991 and 2021. General linear models were developed to explain variation in change over the 30 years in different cover types. The years in which peak and trough values occurred were also determined, as were the incidence and direction of differences between treatments in sites and years. Key results There was marked variation in change over 30 years between the sites and lifeforms. Exclusion of mammalian herbivores increased the slow rate of revegetation. There was little effect from rabbits by themselves. Unexpectedly, the cover of both short and tall herbs was not promoted by grazing exclusion. Short term climatic variation affected some cover types, with many peaks and troughs in the dry year of 2001, but it was not possible to disentangle decades scale climate change effects from the process of recovery after disturbance. Conclusions The slight increase in revegetation rates in the absence of native herbivores and rabbits does not justify culling. Restoration interventions appear to be unnecessary. The prospect of increasing fire incidence and deer numbers suggests that it is desirable to continue monitoring the plots.

Roe Deer, Lithuania’s Smallest and Most Abundant Cervid

A review of 113 scientific and other publications on the smallest and most abundant deer in Lithuania, the roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), is presented, along with an analysis based on compound annual population growth rates of population numbers, hunting bags, and roadkill. This review covers the species’ history in the country from the last glaciation onwards, the changes in numbers from 1934 to 2023, hunting bag changes from 1965 to 2022, roadkill numbers from 2002 to 2022, data on roe deer reproduction, habitat selection, genetic diversity, pathogens, and damage to forest stands. It also provides an overview of species management and selection for trophies. Despite the exponential increase in roe deer numbers since 1990 and the dominance of this species in roadkill, even on urban roads, the number and density of animals and the damage they cause to forest stands are relatively low compared to other European countries. Within the observed period, drops in numbers were related to harsh winters in 1969/1970 and 1995/1996. Poaching, especially coinciding with weakened enforcement during the period of political–economic transition in the early 1990s, has also had a negative impact on population numbers, as have recent increases in the number of large predators. Population growth over the recent period does not correlate with hunting mortality, which has remained stable at an average of 16.9% since 2002.

Cervids as Sentinels for Rickettsia spp. in Portugal

Cervids are highly exposed to ticks, however, their role in the life cycle of these rickettsiae has not been fully elucidated. Given the expanding distribution and growing population of deer species in Portugal, coupled with their direct and indirect interactions with humans during hunting, it becomes crucial to explore their role as sentinels and potential reservoirs of Rickettsia. The present investigation aimed to detect and evaluate exposure to Rickettsia in free-living deer from Portugal. Blood samples (n = 77) were collected from hunted game animals (red deer and fallow deer) from different areas throughout Portugal (Idanha-a-Nova, Monte Fidalgo, Montalvão and Arraiolos) and sera were tested by immunofluorescence assay, to detect antibodies. Additionally, blood DNA samples were screened for SFGR by nested-polymerase chain reaction targeting a fragment of the outer membrane protein B (ompB) gene, as well as for Anaplasma and Ehrlichia spp. targeting the 16S rRNA gene. Thirty-five per cent (25 deer and two fallow deer) tested positive (sera with a titer ≥1:64) for IgG antibodies against Rickettsia conorii. No rickettsial DNA was detected by PCR for the ompB gene, and all DNA samples tested negative for Anaplasma and Ehrlichia.As far as we know, this study is the first screening of cervid species in Portugal for Rickettsia antibodies. The findings suggest that these animals serve as useful sentinel indicators for the circulation of rickettsiae, offering a complementary perspective to studies focused on ticks.The increasing numbers of hunted deer in Portugal and the potential zoonotic features of Rickettsia spp. highlight the importance of continued surveillance directed at tick-borne diseases, especially those involving wild animals.

Effects of Pieris japonica (Ericaceae) dominance on cool temperate forest altered-understory environments and soil microbiomes in Southern Japan.

The number of plants unpalatable to deer increases with increasing deer numbers. In the Kyushu Mountain area of Southern Japan, Pieris japonica (Ericaceae), an unpalatable shrub, has become the monodominant vegetation under evergreen conifer and deciduous broad-leaved tree stands. The monodominance of unpalatable plants in the understory has potential advantages and drawbacks; however, the effects of Pieris dominance are not well understood. To assess the effects of P. japonica dominances on forest environments and ecosystems, we investigated understory environments and soil microbiomes in Pieris-dominant sites. Under the deciduous broad-leaved trees, Pieris dominance leads to considerable Pieris leaf litter and humus weights and low soil bulk density and canopy openness. In the soil fungal community and fungal functional groups, the relative abundance of symbiotrophic fungi, particularly ectomycorrhizal fungi in Pieris-dominant sites were lower than in other-vegetation understory sites and saprotrophic fungi vice versa. Because few seedlings and saplings were found under Pieris shrubs, Pieris dominance in the understory might exclude other plant species. The results of this study will contribute to the Pieris population and forest management following deer overgrazing.

Deer in the extreme north-east of Russia: Koryak ecotype (Rangifer Tarandus L.)

Purpose: the study of economic and significant indicators of the Koryak ecotype of the northern deer.Materials and methods. The model for the study of the Koryak ecotype was the livestock of animals in agricultural enterprises for breeding the northern deer in the Kamchatka Peninsula during the stable development of the industry, with a total number of more than 125 thousand individuals. The entire number of deer was contained in 86 herds, on average in one herd, up to 1,400-1500 animals fell. Zootechnical information was taken from annual reports of deer farms. In the study of farms, indicators used in the reindeer husbandry industry were taken: the number of deer at the beginning of the year; the uterus in the structure of the herd (the number of important and heels in % to the total number of deer); offspring - received living calves at the end of the hotel per 100 uterus, %; DWT - a business exit of calves at the end of the year per 100 uterus, %; SVP - the safety of the adult number of deer at the end of the year, %; Production of meat in live weight, taking into account growth per 100 January deer, in C; Live weight of sexual age groups, kg.Results. The reindeer husbandry of the territory was distinguished by high quality indicators. The specific gravity of the uterus in the structure of the herd was maintained at 60 % and higher. The deer of this ecotype has good reproductive properties, on average at the end of the hotel there were more than 86 calves per 100 queens. The business yield of young animals at the end of the year on average ecotip was 80.6 % with fluctuations from 73 to 86.5 %, which confirms the high reproductive properties and viability of the young deer group of the northern deer. The safety indicator of the adult livestock at the end of the year was at the level of 93.9 % with fluctuations in individual populations from 90.4 % to 96.5 %. The production of meat in live weight, taking into account the growth of 100 deer according to individual scope, was flukes from 28 to 31.5 c, with an average ecotype value over 29.2 c. In terms of live weight of the Koryak ecotype deer, they exceeded the analogues of the sexual age groups of deer in the Chukotsk AO by 1.0-7.7 %, which confirms their high household chores. When crossing the deer of the Koryak ecotype and the Chukotka breed, a manifestation of heterosis was noted, since the estates significantly exceeded both initial parental forms in live weight, the preservation of the livestock, the business exit of young animals increased, and the production of meat increased. The identification of highly productive ecotypes and the creation on their basis of in -breed structures will increase the productivity of the northern deer.

ИСПОЛЬЗОВАНИЕ НЕЧЕТКО-ВОЗМОЖНОСТНОГО ПОДХОДА ПРИ МОДЕЛИРОВАНИИ БИОЛОГИЧЕСКИХ ПОПУЛЯЦИЙ

Deterministic methods of building mathematical models of biological populations are being replaced by new ones based on the fuzzypossibility approach (FPA) using expert knowledge and their professional experience. The advantage of FPA is that the expert acts as an «intellectual informationdiagnostic system» with the content of all necessary information when solving a particular problem. This allows to reduce the time of model creation by orders of magnitude and does not require, as in deterministic approaches, their subsequent intellectualization, since the FPA uses directly the information from the expert. The article presents a synthesized mathematical model in a fivedimensional factor space of fuzzy linguistic variables, systematically describing a hardtoformalize phenomenon – change in the number of wild reindeer. The factor space was composed of fuzzy linguistic variables X1 – tension of food relations, qualitative variable; X2 – food competition with domestic reindeer, qualitative variable; X3 – natural mortality (mortality coefficient from 0,04 to 0,12; X4 – climatic impacts (annual trend of air temperature); X5 – anthropogenic impacts, qualitative variable. Y – population growth rate, as a percentage of the previous year's population (from –10 to 10%). The necessity of the conducted research is caused by the fact that since the beginning of the XXI century, there is a decrease in the number of deer to 700–750 thousand by 2009, to 417 thousand by 2017 and to 241 thousand in 2021. The catastrophic decline in the number of wild reindeer is a global trend. However, there is no consensus on the causes of such degradation. The created model quantitatively confirmed all five stages in the global development of the Taymir population for the last period from the 50s of the previous century to the present. It is suggested that the approach proposed in the article may be useful in identifying the causes of degradation of wild reindeer populations and developing measures to stabilize and restore the numbers of these animals.

Relative efficiency of hunting methods during an incomplete Sitka black‐tailed deer eradication on Haida Gwaii, Canada

Abstract Invasive species are reducing global biodiversity. The Llgaay gwii sdiihlda—Restoring Balance project was initiated to halt and reverse biodiversity loss on six islands on Haida Gwaii, Canada through the eradication of invasive Sitka Black‐tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus sitkensis). Invasive deer were killed using various hunting methods including bait station, boat, aerial and indicator dog hunting as well as a combination of bailing dogs with boat and aerial hunting. Cost was quantified in terms of helicopter hunting hours ($1965 CAD/hr at the time of the study) to facilitate comparisons. Efficiency was quantified as the expected number of deer per helicopter hour. Hierarchical Bayesian integrated removal models were used to estimate the change in efficiency of the various hunting methods with deer density based on a power function. The models used the number of scent trail detections by dogs at the end of the study to help parameterise the population density. At densities between 2 and 30 deer/km2, boat hunting was estimated as the most efficient method while at lower densities indicator dog hunting was most efficient. The eradication was incomplete. The estimated cost to completion using indicator dog hunting for each island was 43 helicopter hours (~$84,000) on Ramsay Island (95% CI = 19–128), 3.9 helicopter hours on Murchison Island (95% CI = 0.56–18) and no additional hours on House (95% CI = 0–1.6) though the selected method would likely have been indicator dogs with combined hunting due to the variable terrain. Lessons learned: DNA connectivity analysis can be used to determine project durability, pilot studies to confirm method efficiency in local context will increase the chances of success, local knowledge improves efficiency of hunting methods, population and efficiency estimates should be updated throughout operations to allow adaptive management, eradications on ungulates can include pauses to facilitate adaptive management, the level of certainty for determining eradication completion should be determined in advance of operations with explicit trade‐offs identified for managers.

Application of the tyraliera counting method to the large-scale inventory of red deer Cervus elaphus in the northern part of Western Pomerania, Poland

Game animal damage in the forests and fields of Central Europe, which dramatically increased at the turn of the 21st century, has undermined the reliability of the size of game population estimates. It is hypothesized that this problem can be attributed to errors in the assessment of animal density. This study conducted game inventories in a region characterized by a large ungulate population using a count method with drivers in line formation (direct counts in control plots). The size of the red deer population in the investigated area was estimated using generalized linear models assuming a negative binomial distribution based on the compound distribution (including the zero-inflated model). The mean red deer density in spring 2012 was 21.5 animals/km2 of forest. The number of red deer determined during this study is often higher that hunters indicated in annual game management plans. For the rational management of populations, it is therefore necessary to verify those estimates periodically, e.g. every five years. The statistical analysis of data from tyraliera method counts may show the actual population size during spring. Thus, it can be the basis for adequately planning hunting bags. Adjusting the population density to the carrying environmental capacity should make it possible to reduce the pressure of red deer on forests and agricultural land.

Projecting the dynamics of invading deer with pattern‐oriented modelling to support management decision‐making

Abstract Avoiding the undesirable impacts of invasive species requires robustly evaluating the effects of alternative management scenarios. Such evaluations depend on reliable spatio‐temporal projections of changes in the distribution and abundance of the invasive species under different scenarios. However, commonly used modelling approaches are constrained for this purpose because they do not incorporate demographic processes and are seldom validated. We develop a spatially and temporally explicit grid‐based population model for invasive fallow deer Dama dama in Tasmania, Australia, validated against observed distribution and abundance ‘targets’ using a pattern‐oriented approach. We use this validated model to project the future invasion patterns of deer, including encroachment into areas of high conservation value, under eight harvest and habitat suitability scenarios. Projected population sizes of deer differ greatly depending on harvest and habitat suitability scenarios. Without harvest, the population grows sixfold, from about 80,000 deer in 2019 to over 500,000 by 2100. In contrast, the population stabilises at 32,000–41,000 deer with 25% annual harvest. Abundance in the environmentally sensitive Tasmanian Wilderness World Heritage Area (TWWHA), a region of high conservation value, increases in all scenarios. We identify likely areas in the expanding range of deer where targeted removal should be most effective at minimising deer numbers in the TWWHA. Synthesis and applications: Using a pattern‐oriented model validated with spatio‐temporal data, we show how the future distribution and abundance of invasive fallow deer in Tasmania can be substantially reduced by targeted increases in harvest and prioritising areas for removal around high conservation value regions. Our approach can be used to project likely effects of management interventions on future distributions and abundances for a range of invasive taxa.

Этноэкономическая трансформация горно-таежного оленеводства в Иркутской области

Abstract. The purpose of the study is the analysis of ethno-economic problems and consequences of transformations of the mountain-taiga reindeer husbandry in Tofalaria. Research methods. To study the reindeer husbandry of the Tofs, an indigenous people of Siberia, a combination of ethno-economic and ecological-geographical methods, as well as elements of a systematic approach, were used, on the basis of which data on the state of reindeer husbandry as a component of the traditional economy were interpreted. Results. The role of transformational processes in the formation of the crisis of reindeer breeding, the decrease in the number of deer, and the change in the nature of land use has been established. Ethno-economic transformations have led to the loss of reindeer breeding skills and micro-areal development of reindeer pastures. It was revealed that the development of rural areas of Tofalaria requires a revision of the traditional ethno-economic complex. Taiga small-scale reindeer husbandry performs the transport function of providing hunting, it does not belong to profitable industries, there are no methods to calculate its effectiveness in objective terms. It is emphasized that the main guidelines for assessing reindeer breeding are the preservation of the deer population and the age and sex structure of the herd, as well as its symbolic significance for the ethnic culture of the Tofs. The request of the ethnosociety for the development of reindeer husbandry expresses both the needs of the traditional economy and the ethnocultural aspects of ethnicity. These conclusions contribute to expanding the understanding of the complex nature of traditional nature management systems and their sustainability. The practical significance of the results lies in the possibility of adjusting regional programs to support indigenous peoples, taking them into account. Scientific novelty. It has been established that in the crisis state of reindeer husbandry, the consequences of unfinished transformation processes and the contradictions caused by them in the natural and economic system of traditional nature management are still affecting. Inconsistency in management based on planned indicators and ignoring traditional experience laid the foundation for a negative scenario for the development of reindeer husbandry long before the post-Soviet transformations.

Mammal Roadkills in Lithuanian Urban Areas: A 15-Year Study.

We investigated roadkills in urban areas in Lithuania from 2007 to 2022, including two periods with COVID-19 restrictions on people's movement. We analyzed the proportions of wild and domestic animals in roadkill, annual trends, the predominant species involved, and monthly changes during the restrictions. Urban roads were characterized by a low species diversity of roadkilled mammals, with roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) dominating. Total numbers increased exponentially during the study period. The proportion of domestic animals, 12.2%, significantly exceeded that on non-urban roads in the country. The proportion of domestic animals decreased from over 40% in 2007-2009 to 3.7-5.4% in 2020-2022, while the proportion of wild mammals increased from 36.1-39.6% to 89.9-90.6%, respectively. During the periods of COVID-19 restrictions, the number of roadkills in urban areas was significantly higher than expected based on long-term trends. Compared to 2019, the number of roadkilled roe deer in 2020-2021 almost doubled from 700 to 1281-1325 individuals. These anthropause effects were, however, temporary. The imbalance between the roadkill number and transport intensity might require new mitigation strategies to sustain mammal populations in urban areas, at least through improving driver awareness on the issue.

Woodland expansion in the presence of deer: 30 years of evidence from the Cairngorms Connect landscape restoration partnership

Abstract Restoring native woodlands to areas where they have been lost is a key element for tackling the nature and climate crises. Natural regeneration offers the potential to achieve this cheaply and at scale, but browsing ungulates like deer can inhibit this or alter the pattern of regeneration. This issue is particularly pronounced in the Scottish Highlands, a heavily deforested region with high deer numbers. We describe the work of the 60,000 ha landscape restoration partnership, Cairngorms Connect, in speeding up natural woodland expansion. We use 30 years of regeneration monitoring to show a consistent, large‐scale expansion of native woodland, largely through natural regeneration alongside deer culling, without the use of fences. This was achieved across the partnership, despite differing management histories and land‐managing organisations (comprising two statutory agencies, one private landowner and one non‐governmental organisation). During peak periods of woodland expansion, the area of new woodland (i.e. exceeding 100 trees per hectare) increased by 1.2%, 1.7%, 2.7% and 6.0% annually in the four landholdings' regeneration zones, equating to a total of approximately 164 ha annually of new woodland. Natural regeneration is however patchy and hard to predict. Higher levels of management intervention may be needed to increase species that are rarer, more palatable or further from seed sources; we recommend long‐term field trials to inform this, such as those underway in Cairngorms Connect. Further research should develop techniques for remote sensing of woodland expansion, verified against field data and combined with the development of process‐based models to enable us to predict the outcomes of different management scenarios. Synthesis and applications. We show that collaborative deer management across multiple adjoining landholdings can achieve rapid landscape‐scale native woodland expansion with minimal need for planting or fencing. Our results show the power of monitoring regeneration directly, to inform deer management for an area. We demonstrate that by uniting over a shared vision, organisations with differing management approaches and histories can build understanding alongside landscape‐scale ecological restoration.

FOOD SUPPLEMENTATION INCREASES MULE DEER (Odocoileus hemionus eremicus) RETENTION AT THE RANCHO SAN HUBERTO WILDLIFE CONSERVATION MANAGEMENT UNIT, SONORA, MEXICO

Artificial food and water supplementation programs are common in Wildlife Conservation Management Units (UMAs) in arid northern Mexico to attract and retain mule deer as quality trophies. However, implementing these actions represents a high economic cost, and there is no convincing evidence of their effectiveness. This study evaluated the effect of food and water supplementation by capture-mark-recapture using camera traps at the UMA San Huberto, Sonora, Mexico. During the winter of 2015-2016, male mule deer counts and detection histories were collected at 62 photo-trapping stations spread across four supplementation treatments: 1) water and food, 2) water, 3) food, and 4) no supplementation. In addition, to assess the impact of natural vegetation on trough and feeder utilization on the ranch, the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index was calculated using Landsat 8 satellite images. A log-Poisson regression model for deer counts per photo-trapping station found that food supplementation increased mule deer numbers by 42 % when compared to stations without food supplementation. Vegetation biomass had no effect on the frequency of use of feeders and waterers in any of the treatments. According to the multistate model for detection histories, male mule deer at waterers receiving food-only supplementation are more likely to remain in that treatment than to move to either of the other two treatments (water and feed or water). This finding suggests that food-only supplementation is more effective in retaining male mule deer.

A Before‐After Control‐Impact experiment reveals that culling reduces the impacts of invasive deer on endangered peatlands

Abstract Invasive deer have undesirable impacts on native ecosystems. Culling is commonly used to reduce those impacts, but is expensive and sometimes controversial. It is therefore important to robustly assess how culling reduces the impacts of invasive deer. We conducted a Before‐After Control‐Impact (BACI) experiment to determine how culling affects the impacts of invasive sambar deer Cervus unicolor in an endangered alpine peatland ecosystem in south‐eastern Australia. We established two blocks, each with four 4300‐ha experimental units, in which two units were randomly assigned to a treatment of deer culling and the other two were non‐treatment areas. Sambar deer relative abundance (faecal pellet count) and three impacts (ground degradation, pugging intensity and water turbidity) in three peatland features (peatlands, natural pools and sambar deer wallows) were surveyed before and after culling was implemented. We used four metrics to quantify the culling intensity in each treatment unit: treatment versus non‐treatment, number of deer culled on each unit, deer culled within a 500‐m buffer of impact monitoring sites and local probability of use by the cullers (1‐ha grid). The effects of culling on deer abundance and impacts were estimated using Bayesian generalised linear mixed models. Our analysis revealed that the effect of culling differed between the two experimental blocks. In one block, culling reduced deer abundance and three impacts. In the other block, culling did not reduce deer abundance but reduced three impacts and increased two impacts. The effects of culling were generally stronger when culling was estimated using finer‐scale (500‐m) than coarser‐scale (experimental unit) culling metrics. Synthesis and applications. Our study provides experimental evidence that culling invasive sambar deer reduces some of their undesirable impacts on endangered peatlands. That not all impacts were reduced by culling suggests that some effects of invasive species are slow to recover or require higher culling intensities to be reversed.

Spatiotemporal epizootiology of chronic wasting disease in Wisconsin deer

AbstractChronic wasting disease (CWD) is a fatal neurological disease of cervids caused by a misfolded protein with no vaccines or other cures to prevent infection and death. In the past decade, CWD has been recognized as one of the 10 most important challenges facing wildlife management. This paper evaluates the temporal and spatial patterns of CWD prevalence in southern Wisconsin white‐tailed deer during the past 20 years. In most CWD areas, prevalence progresses from introduction to enzootic equilibrium in 15–20 years. In some monitoring areas, the disease grows at a much slower rate and remains below the equilibrium levels. Outbreaks are characterized by four distinct epizootic stages. Disease establishment (Stage 1) depends on the distance from a CWD focus. High rates of incidence and prevalence growth (Stage 2) are followed by slower growth as the relative number of susceptible deer declines (Stage 3). The rate of prevalence increase over time is higher in more forested ecoregions and in males (0.48 vs. 0.43) but similar in females (0.43 vs. 0.37) and yearlings (0.44 vs. 0.39). Habitat features, acting as surrogates for deer behavior and contact, may affect the rate of prevalence growth at a landscape (ecoregion) scale. Additionally, prevalence may be affected by deer management practices that favor higher deer abundance and more mature males. Finally, enzootic equilibrium (Stage 4) is higher in males (0.5), followed by females (0.36) and then yearlings (0.26). These equilibrium prevalence levels are high enough to have significant population impacts, reduce the abundance of mature males, and facilitate CWD spread by infected yearlings. Epizootic patterns suggest that CWD transmission has been frequency‐dependent and primarily driven by direct contact with infected deer. Evidence for a meaningful change in the epizootic pattern from a 10‐year management program to reduce deer abundance is lacking. The trajectory of CWD dynamics in Wisconsin suggests rapid growth in regional prevalence following introduction and increased spread across the landscape.