Captive Deer Research Articles

Heat stress reduces growth rate of red deer calf: Climate warming implications.

Climate models agree in predicting scenarios of global warming. In endothermic species heat stress takes place when they are upper their thermal neutral zone. Any physiological or behavioural mechanism to mitigate heat stress is at the cost of diverting energy from other physiological functions, with negative repercussions for individual fitness. Tolerance to heat stress differs between species, age classes and sexes, those with the highest metabolic rates being the most sensitive to stressing thermal environments. This is especially important during the first months of life, when most growth takes place. Red deer (Cervus elaphus) is supposedly well adapted to a wide range of thermal environments, based on its worldwide distribution range, but little is known about the direct effect that heat stress may have on calf growth. We assessed the effect that heat stress, measured by heat stress indices and physical environment variables (air temperature, relative air humidity, wind speed and solar radiation), have on calf and mother body weights from calf´s birth to weaning. We used 9265 longitudinal weekly body weight records of calf and mother across 19 years in captive Iberian red deer. We hypothesised that (i) heat stress in hot environments has a negative effect on calf growth, especially in males, as they are more energetically demanding to produce than females; and that (ii) the body weight of the mother through lactation should be negatively affected by heat stress. Our results supported hypothesis (i) but not so clearly hypothesis (ii). By weaning (day 143) calves growing under low heat stress environment grew up to 1.2 kg heavier than those growing in high heat stress environment, and males were more affected by heat stress than females. The results have implications in animal welfare, geographical clines in body size and adaptation to climate change.

Evaluating the Use of Drones Equipped with Thermal Sensors as an Effective Method for Estimating Wildlife

ABSTRACTDrones equipped with thermal sensors have shown ability to overcome some of the limitations often associated with traditional human‐occupied aerial surveys (e.g., low detection, high operational cost, human safety risk). However, their accuracy and reliability as a valid population technique have not been adequately tested. We tested the effectiveness of using a miniaturized thermal sensor equipped to a drone (thermal drone) for surveying white‐tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) populations using a captive deer population with a highly constrained (hereafter, known) abundance (151–163 deer, midpoint 157 [87–94 deer/km2, midpoint 90 deer/km2]) at Auburn University's deer research facility, Alabama, USA, 16–17 March 2017. We flew 3 flights beginning 30 minutes prior to sunrise and sunset (1 morning and 2 evening) consisting of 15 nonoverlapping parallel transects (18.8 km) using a small fixed‐wing aircraft equipped with a nonradiometric thermal infrared imager. Deer were identified by 2 separate observers by their contrast against background thermal radiation and body shape. Our average thermal drone density estimate (69.8 deer/km2, 95% CI = 52.2–87.6), was 78% of the mean known value of 90.2 deer/km2, exceeding most sighting probabilities observed with thermal surveys conducted using human‐occupied aircraft. Thermal contrast between animals and background was improved during evening flights and our drone‐based density estimate (82.7 deer/km2) was 92% of the mean known value. This indicates that time of flight, in conjunction with local vegetation types, determines thermal contrast and influences ability to distinguish deer. The method provides the ability to perform accurate and reliable population surveys in a safe and cost‐effective manner compared with traditional aerial surveys and is only expected to continue to improve as sensor technology and machine learning analytics continue to advance. Furthermore, the precise replicability of autonomous flights at future dates results in methodology with superior spatial precision that increases statistical power to detect population trends across surveys. © 2020 The Wildlife Society.

Prospective Study of Epizootic Hemorrhagic Disease Virus and Bluetongue Virus Transmission in Captive Ruminants.

Bluetongue virus (BTV) and epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus (EHDV) cause hemorrhagic disease (HD) in wild ruminants and bluetongue disease (BT) and epizootic hemorrhagic disease (EHD) in livestock. These viruses are transmitted by biting midges in the genus Culicoides (family Ceratopogonidae). Mortality from this disease can reach 90% in certain breeds of sheep and in white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). From January until December of 2012, we conducted a prospective study to determine the origin and routes of transmission of BTV and EHDV in captive deer and cattle. The objective was to determine the abundance of Culicoides spp. and BTV/EHDV infection prevalence in midges, cattle, and deer in an area experiencing an outbreak of BT and EHD. Agar gel immunodiffusion (AGID) tests to detect for EHDV and BTV antibodies were conducted on serum collected from cattle and deer, quantitative reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) was utilized for BTV/EHDV RNA detection in tissues from dead deer, and CDC miniature black light traps baited with dry ice were deployed to capture insects. The AGID results showed 19 out of 29 cattle and 18 out of 58 white-tailed deer seroconverted for these viruses during the vector season. Tradition gel-based reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction was utilized to determine serotype. Sixteen cows were positive for EHDV-2, EHDV-6, or BTV-12 and 15 deer positive for EHDV-1, EHDV-6, or BTV-12. Specimens from 14 species of Culicoides (Dptera: Ceratopogonidae) (Culicoides arboricola Root and Hoffman, Culicoides biguttatus Coquillett, Culicoides crepuscularis Malloch, Culicoides debilipalpis Lutz, Culicoides furens Poey, Culicoides haematopotus Malloch, Culicoides hinmani Khalaf, Culicoides nanus Root and Hoffman, Culicoides neopulicaris Wirth, Culicoides paraensis Goeldi, Culicoides stellifer Coquillet, Culicoides variipennis Coquillet, Culicoides villosipennis Root and Hoffman, and Culicoides venustus Hoffman) were captured and tested for BTV and EHDV using RT-qPCR assays. BTV viral nucleic acid was detected in three pools from three different species of midges: C. crepuscularis, C. debilipalpis, and C. stellifer.

Changes in the Population Genetic Structure of Captive Forest Musk Deer (Moschus Berezovskii) with the Increasing Number of Generation under Closed Breeding Conditions.

Simple SummaryForest musk deer is an endangered species. Musk produced by male musk deer is precious natural flavor and an important ingredient of traditional Chinese medicines. Forest musk deer is a territorial animal, and it is very difficult for captive forest musk deer to record the accurate pedigree using the “Breeding Management System of Rotated Mating” (BMS-RM). In the study, we examined the genetic structure of captive forest musk deer population in Barkam center, and the changes in allele diversity, heterozygosity and inbreeding coefficient with increasing generations. The results show that the population has high genetic diversity, but the genetic structure of different generations in the population shows that the extent of inbreeding is slowly increasing with increasing number of generations. This suggests that the BMS-RM is effective for maintaining genetic structure diversity of population, but captive forest musk deer in Barkam center still face the risk of inbreeding increasing. So, it is necessary to optimize the BMS-RM of captive forest musk deer or introduce male forest musk deer from an unrelated population. This study revealed the status of genetic diversity of captive forest musk deer in Barkam center and the current risks of inbreeding for providing an important understanding to the application of BMS-RM.We investigated the genetic diversity of the population of captive forest musk deer (Moschus berezovskii) in Barkam Musk Deer Breeding Centre using twelve microsatellite markers, and then analyzed the change in genetic structure of successive generation groups from the population. The data provide a new understanding for the evaluation and usage of the breeding management system. Microsatellite marker analysis detected 141 alleles with an average of 11.75 alleles for each marker. The average expected heterozygosity (HE) was 0.731. Performing an F-statistical analysis on the data showed that the genetic diversity of population decreased, and the inbreeding coefficient significant increased with the increase of generation, and FIS of the 1st generation is significantly lower than that of the second to fifth generation (p < 0.01). The result suggested that the captive population was facing the pressure of inbreeding (FIS = 0.115) and the subsequent loss of genetic diversity. Therefore, it is necessary to improve the breeding management system of the captive population by preventing close relatives from mating or inducing new individuals from the exotic population.

Chronic Wasting Disease of North American Cervids

Chronic wasting disease (CWD) is a transmissible spongiform encephalopathy that has been reported in captive and free-ranging mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus hemionus), white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), Rocky Mountain elk (Cervus elaphus nelsoni) and moose (Alces alces shirasi). CWD has been reported in free-ranging cervids in 11 states and two Canadian provinces. CWD has been found in captive cervids in eight states and two Canadian provinces, but all of these herds have been depopulated except for three herds in Colorado. The mode of transmission of CWD is not known, but thought to be associated with ingestion of contaminated food or water from a contaminated environment. The primary clinical signs in cervids with CWD include weight loss and excessive salivation. Primary gross lesions include emaciation with loss of body fat. The hallmark histological lesion of CWD is spongiform encephalopathy. Diagnosis can only be confirmed with examination of the brain and/or lymphoid tissues with immunohistochemical staining. ELISA tests are used for screening large numbers of samples, for example during hunter kill surveys.

Protective Effect of Oral BCG and Inactivated Mycobacterium bovis Vaccines in European Badgers (Meles meles) Experimentally Infected With M. bovis.

In Europe, badgers (Meles meles) are recognized as major tuberculosis (TB) reservoir hosts with the potential to transmit infection to associated cattle herds. Recent studies in Spain have demonstrated that vaccination with a heat-inactivated Mycobacterium bovis vaccine (HIMB) successfully protects captive wild boar and red deer against progressive disease. The aim of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of two oral vaccines against TB in a badger model: the live-attenuated M. bovis bacillus Calmette-Guérin BCG vaccine (Danish strain) and a HIMB vaccine. Twenty-four badgers were separated in three treatment groups: oral vaccinated with live BCG (108 CFU, n = 5), oral vaccinated with HIMB (107 CFU, n = 7), and unvaccinated controls (n = 12). All badgers were experimentally infected with M. bovis (103 CFU) by the endobronchial route targeting the right middle lung lobe. Throughout the study, clinical, immunological, pathological, and bacteriological parameters of infection were measured. Both vaccines conferred protection against experimental TB in badger, as measured by a reduction of the severity and lesion volumes. Based on these data, HIMB vaccination appears to be a promising TB oral vaccine candidate for badgers in endemic countries.

Vaccination of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) with Mycobacterium bovis bacille Calmette-Guérin (BCG) results in positive tuberculin skin test results in a dose-dependent fashion

Mycobacterium bovis is the cause of tuberculosis in most mammalian species, most notably cattle and other members of the family Bovidae; however, many species of the family Cervidae are also susceptible. In North America, tuberculosis has been identified in both captive and free-ranging cervids. Captive cervids are tested for tuberculosis following many of the same guidelines applied to cattle, including intradermal tuberculin testing using M. bovis purified protein derivative (PPD). Both captive and free-ranging deer and elk have been implicated as the source of infection for many cattle herds. Vaccination with the human vaccine M. bovis BCG has been considered as one possible tool to aid in eradication of tuberculosis from cattle and both captive and free-ranging cervids. Studies in cattle have demonstrated that BCG vaccination can induce false positive intradermal tuberculin test reactions in some cattle. Similar findings have been reported for red deer. We orally vaccinated white-tailed deer with BCG and showed that vaccination can induce false positive skin test reactions in some deer and that the rate of false positive reactions is greater with a higher vaccine dose.

Private Property Rights in Captive Breeder Deer: How Wild Are They?

Chronic wasting disease is an incurable and 100% fatal disease that is ravaging America’s native deer population. Despite the state’s best efforts, the disease spread to Texas in 2012. It now threatens to wreak havoc on Texas’s ecosystems and a hunting and fishing industry that accounts for 14.4-billion-dollars of Texas’s economy. Unfortunately, unless prompt action is taken, there will be a third—perhaps unforeseen—victim: Texas citizens’ property rights. The Texas Parks and Wildlife Department has responded to the disease primarily through containment and euthanasia of any deer suspected to be at risk of having the disease. This is because it is impossible to test for the disease on a live deer and because deer can be asymptomatic for years while spreading the disease. Unfortunately, this has resulted in the seemingly draconian effect of having entire herds of captive breeder deer euthanized when the disease is discovered in one member of the herd. For the unfortunate citizens who own these ranches, this means the destruction of their livelihoods and the loss of millions of dollars’ worth of breeder deer. Consequently, deer breeders have been bringing takings claims in order to recover compensation for the destruction of their property by the government. However, an individual must have a property interest to be able to bring a successful takings claim. Therefore, courts have had to broach the question of whether captive breeder deer can be private property. Most recently in Texas, the Austin Court of Appeals in Bailey v. Smith held — much to the chagrin of the deer breeder industry and property right supporters everywhere — captive breeder deer are not private property, but merely public property held under permit. This interpretation of Texas’s common law and regulatory scheme to abrogate Texas citizens’ property rights in captive breeder deer cannot stand. This Article argues that Texas courts and legislators must take steps to uphold and strengthen its citizens’ private property rights in their captive breeder deer. Classifying theses expensive animals as public property, aside from infringing on citizens’ property rights, will likely have a myriad of negative effects, ranging from destabilizing an important sector of Texas’s economy to destroying individuals’ abilities to protect their interest against third parties. There are many academic articles providing analysis of private ownership of wild animals as this subject is thousands of years old. However, this Article is the first to consider the ownership of captive breeder deer through the lens of Texas’s statutory and common law scheme and in the light of the recent decision in Bailey v. Smith. Further, this Article gives unique insight into the yet unaddressed negative effects classifying captive breeder deer as public property would have. This topic will only become more pertinent as chronic wasting disease continues to spread through Texas causing it and the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department’s regulations to affect more and more people.

Acoustic parameters of courtship and human-directed friendly vocalisations in seven species of Neotropical deer in captivity

Context Polygynous deer rut vocalisations have been found to be highly conspicuous, typical of the species and important in sexual selection. Information about vocalisations is not available for Neotropical species (subfamily Odocoileinae). Aims The objective was to record courtship vocalisations from all Neotropical deer available, looking for differences among species useful for taxonomic identification, characterise the vocalisations according to acoustic parameters and to try to determine functions. Methods Four species of brocket deer (red, Mazama americana (n = 9); grey, M. gouazoubira (n = 7); Amazonian brown, M. nemorivaga (n = 3); Brazilian dwarf, M. nana (n = 1)), and one individual each of marsh (Blastocerus dichotomus), white-tailed (Odocoileus virginianus) and taruca (Hippocamellus antisensis) deer were recorded in captivity at two institutions, in conditions of courtship or human interaction. The acoustic analysis was performed with Praat. Data from the first three species of Mazama were analysed statistically with a multilevel model with two layers. Key results In the context of courting either females or humans, male deer produced low-intensity, short-duration (0.1–0.3 s) bleats with fundamental frequencies (F0) between 100 and 400 Hz; calls were similar among species. The duration of these calls for Amazonian brown brocket males was significantly longer than for males of the other two species. Females of two species had longer-duration calls than did males, in friendly interactions with humans. F0 differences among species for both friendly and courtship calls were almost significant for males of M. gouazoubira. Individual differences were highly significant for both duration and mean F0. Mean F0 for courtship calls of adult males was not correlated with body size in six of the seven species, in contrast to the theory of acoustic allometry. Conclusions The production of male courtship bleats is probably a basic feature of Odocoiline deer and is probably important in sexual selection and female choice. The differences from one species to another are not sufficient for taxonomic use but may be incipient isolating mechanisms between grey and Amazonian brown brocket deer. Implications Studies of deer vocalisations have shown their importance in sexual selection and their incredible variety in closely related species and subspecies, but they have dealt mainly with Old World deer. This study fills a gap in our knowledge, as the first on Neotropical deer, which constitute six genera and 17 species and are widely distributed in the Americas. These data are important for future studies on the function and phylogeny of deer vocalisations.

Sustainability of Timor Deer in Captivity: Captive Breeding Systems in West Java, Indonesia

The population of Timor deer (Rusa timorensis), an Indonesian endemic, continues to decline in its natural habitat, so captive breeding could become a source of individuals to bolster wild populati...

Partnering with Taxidermists for Improved Chronic Wasting Disease Surveillance.

Simple SummaryChronic wasting disease (CWD) is a contagious neurological disease affecting deer, moose, elk, and reindeer. CWD is predominantly found in North America and has a higher prevalence in older male deer. To increase the submission of samples from older male deer, the Taxidermy Partnership Program (TPP) was implemented in New York State (NYS). This program partners with taxidermists to obtain valuable samples that would otherwise be lost and helps raise awareness about CWD. Since its start, the TPP has been successful in increasing the number of older male deer submitted for CWD testing.Chronic wasting disease (CWD) is a neurodegenerative disease of cervids caused by a misfolded protein called a prion. This disease affects captive and free-ranging deer, moose, elk, and reindeer, and has been detected in 26 states. Cervids infected with CWD may be asymptomatic for months or years. In most areas, older male deer have higher prevalence rates. Prior to 2013, CWD surveillance in New York State focused on testing samples of convenience, by collecting deer heads from meat processors. However, this sampling was biased because many of the heads from older male deer were taken to taxidermists to be mounted. In 2013, the Taxidermy Partnership Program (TPP) was created to train taxidermists to collect CWD samples, and to increase the proportion of older male deer submitted for CWD testing. Added benefits include improved communication with taxidermists and increased awareness about CWD. Trained taxidermists were able to successfully collect and submit tissue samples with few errors. Participating taxidermists were paid for viable samples. Currently, there is a stable number of taxidermists that participate each year. This program has proven to be a valuable resource for obtaining high-value CWD samples for the wildlife agency, requiring a minimal amount of funding and time.

Effects of compound probiotics on the weight, immunity performance and fecal microbiota of forest musk deer

Probiotics are intended to provide health benefits when consumed, generally by improving or restoring the gut flora. The health problems of forest musk deer (FMD, Moschus berezovskii), a threatened species currently under conservation, restrict the development of captive musk deer. This study was conducted with the aim of analyzing the effects of forest musk deer compound probiotics (FMDPs) on weight, immunity performance and fecal microbiota in FMD by measuring average daily weight gain (ADG) and immune-related factors and by using high-throughput 16S rRNA sequencing to investigate differences in the fecal microbiota among the control group (4 samples), treatment group A (4 samples) and treatment group B (4 samples). The results showed that the ADG of treatment groups A and B was significantly higher than that of the control group (p = 0.032, p = 0.018). The increase in IgA and IgG levels in treatment group B was significantly higher than that in the control group (p = 0.02, p = 0.011). At the phylum and genus levels, the difference in bacterial community structure was significant between treatment group B and the control group. Both the alpha diversity and beta diversity results showed significant differences in the microbiota of FMD before and after FMDP feeding. In summary, the results indicated that FMDPs could promote the growth of growing FMD, improve immunity and balance the role of intestinal microbes.

Condensed tannins as a deterrent to crop depredation by white‐tailed deer: Effects of concentration and learning

ABSTRACTAgricultural producers lose millions of dollars annually to depredation caused by ungulates. Although multiple repellents exist, most are ineffective. Tannins are a plant‐defensive compound that have an astringent taste, reduce digestibility, reduce protein availability, and toxic to rumen microbes, resulting in the reduction of feeding by large herbivores. We hypothesized that chemical application of tannins to forages would provide a nonlethal method to reduce crop depredation in areas susceptible to ungulate damage. We designed an experiment to test the effectiveness of tannins at deterring feeding by captive white‐tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) on soybeans and other forages in 2010–2011 at the Wildlife Research Facility at South Dakota State University in Brookings, South Dakota, USA. First, using a cafeteria trial, we monitored weekly intake rates of captive deer (n = 10) offered a selected feed treated with varying concentrations of quebracho tannins (control, 3%, 5%, 10%, and 20%). Second, we manipulated food plots (n = 3) by treating 3 separate blocks with different concentrations (0% [control], 10%, and 20%) of tannins. We monitored feeding selection relative to tannin treatments within food plots 3 times/week, during summer (May–Jul) and autumn (Aug–Sep) using scan‐sampling. During cafeteria trials, intake rate of control feed was ≥3 times greater than all other feed treated with tannins. Similarly, in manipulated food plots, application of 10% and 20% tannins resulted in a 72% and 89% reduction in probability of feeding during the summer; this pattern of selection was intensified when trials occurred in consecutive days with the same deer. Strategic application of tannins to agricultural crops in areas prone to damage may provide a natural deterrent to crop depredation by ungulates. © 2019 The Wildlife Society.

Aktivitas Harian Rusa Tutul (Axis axis) pada Lahan Konservasi di Hutan Kota Kecamatan Langsa Baro Kota Langsa

Spotted deer (Axis axis) is one of the component forming forest ecosystems and has a very important role in the food chain cycle. However, excessive and uncontrolled use of deer by humans can result in a decline in the animal population in nature. One of the conservation efforts that can be done is by captivity (ex-situ conservation). This study was conducted to determine the daily activity of the spotted deer in captivity of the City Forest in Langsa Baro Subdistrict, Langsa City on 8 - 22 February 2018. Data on the daily activities of the spotted deer were obtained through direct observation using the animal sampling scan method for 15 days. The study found that eating was the highest daily activity, namely male 30,84%, female 32,84%, pregnant deer 34,17%, and young deer without horns were 29.08%. The highest activity time is at 08.30-10.30 and the lowest activity time is from 06.00-08.00.

Analysis of the Gut Microbiome of Wild and Captive Père David's Deer.

Père David’s deer (Elaphurus davidianus or milu) is a highly endangered species originating from China, and many deer are currently being raised in captivity for gradual re-introduction to the wild. Wild and captive deer currently live in the same region but have vastly different diets. In this study, we used 16S rRNA high-throughput sequencing to identify the healthy core microbiome in the gut of wild and captive Père David’s deer and investigate how dietary factors influence the gut microbiome by comparing their differences. A core shared gut microbiome was identified in healthy Père David’s deer, which was similar to that of other ruminants, mainly comprising the phyla Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes. There were no differences in the richness or diversity of the gut microbiome between the wild and captive deer. However, PCA and ANOSIM demonstrated clear differences in the microbial community structure between the captive and wild deer, which mainly manifested as changes in the relative abundance of 39 bacterial genera. As the majority of these genera were not dominant in the deer gut, no significant difference was detected in functional modules related to the microbiome between the two groups. Therefore, the difference in dietary factors does not appear to affect the healthy core gut microbiome between captive and wild Père David’s deer, suggesting strong co-evolution and the possibility of re-establishment in the wild. These data could guide future applications of population management in Père David’s deer conservation.

Azaperone and xylazine: A pharmacological combination to facilitate captive deer management for red brocket deer (Mazama americana).

The care and management of deer in captivity is challenging, especially in the case of red brocket deer (Mazama americana), whose routine management using physical restraint is difficult. Our study evaluated the effects of azaperone and xylazine combination for immobilizing red brocket deer and allow for the standard capture and handling protocols (e.g., biological material, horn cutting, and trimming) to be conducted safely. Six adult, captive, red brocket deer received an intramuscular injection of either 1 mg/kg azaperone and 0.5 mg/kg xylazine (AX0.5) or 1 mg/kg azaperone and 1 mg/kg xylazine (AX1.0). Sedation latency, sternal recumbency, safe handling, and quality of the sedation were evaluated to provide an overview of how the immobilizing drugs affected managing the species in captivity. Additionally, heart rate, respiratory rate, mean arterial pressure, rectal temperature, pH, PaO2, PaCO2, SaO2, HCO3-, BE, Na+, K+ and serum lactate were also measured. The latency period of the animals in the AX0.5 group was greater than that of the animals in the AX1.0 group (7 ± 6.6 min vs. 5 ± 2.0 min), as was the time for them to assume sternal recumbency (12 ± 9.7 min vs. 6 ± 3.1 min). However, the time after the initial dose at which the animals could safely be handled (14 ± 4.5 min vs. 12 ± 5.2 min), and the time until the end of the safe handling period (75 ± 12.3 min vs. 85 ± 6.8 min) were similar for both groups. Animals in both groups showed physiological stability during all evaluations, but hypoxemia was observed in one animal in each group. We conclude that both drug combinations are safe and effective at sedating red brocket deer in captivity and suggest that the procedure be performed with oxygen supplementation to reduce the potential for hypoxia.

First detection and molecular identification of the zoonotic Anaplasma capra in deer in France.

Cervids are known to be reservoirs of zoonotic bacteria transmitted by ticks. This study aimed to identify the Anaplasma species carried by captive red deer and swamp deer in a wild fauna reserve in France. Blood from 59 red deer and 7 swamp deer was collected and analyzed over a period of two years. A semi-nested PCR targeting the 23S rRNA was performed to detect and characterize Anaplasma spp. and determine the presence of zoonotic species. Anaplasma phagocytophilum was identified in 14/59 red deer (23.7%) but it was not identified in any of the swamp deer (7 animals). Three sequences could not be assigned to any particular species based on the 23S rRNA sequences. Complementary nested PCR targeting 16S rRNA, gltA and groEL genes and sequencing analysis then identified these sequences as a recently reported zoonotic species, Anaplasma capra; this species was found in 2 red deer (Cervus elaphus) and 1 swamp deer (Rucervus duvaucelii). This is the first report of the tick-borne zoonotic bacterium A. capra in France, a species otherwise described only in China, Japan, Malaysia and South Korea in goats, sheep, deer, cattle and Japanese serows (Capricornis crispus). While this bacterium may have been introduced into the reserve by infected imported animals, its local epidemiological cycle via tick transmission seems possible as locally born deer were found infected. Diagnostic methods, especially molecular ones, should take into account the potential infection of animals and humans with this species.

Immobilization of captive Persian fallow deer (Dama dama mesopotamica) using medetomidine–ketamine or medetomidine–midazolam

ObjectiveTo establish and compare the effectiveness of two medetomidine-based immobilization protocols in Persian fallow deer (Dama dama mesopotamica). Study designProspective, randomized, blinded clinical study. AnimalsA group of 31 captive Persian fallow deer. MethodsDeer scheduled for translocation were immobilized with a combination of medetomidine (76 ± 11 μg kg−1) and ketamine (1.0 ± 0.2 mg kg−1) (MK; n = 15) or medetomidine (77 ± 11 μg kg−1) and midazolam (0.10 ± 0.01 mg kg−1) (MM; n = 16) administered intramuscularly. An observer unaware of group assignments recorded times to immobilization and recovery, monitored physiologic variables and scored the quality of induction, immobilization and recovery (scale 1–5: 1, poor; 5, excellent). Atipamezole was administered for reversal. Data analysis was performed using the t test, the Mann–Whitney U test, the chi-square test and the Fisher's exact test. Significance was set at p < 0.05. ResultsData are presented as mean ± standard deviation or median (range). Time to induce immobilization was 9 ± 4 and 10 ± 4 minutes in the MK and MM groups, respectively. Immobilization quality score was 5 (1–5) following both combinations. Hemoglobin oxygen saturation (SpO2) was significantly lower in the MK (80 ± 8%) than in the MM group (87 ± 8%) although respiratory frequency did not differ between MK and MM (11 ± 5 and 10 ± 2 breaths minute−1, respectively). Recovery times were 13 ± 6 (MK) and 14 ± 7 minutes (MM) and did not differ between groups. No morbidities or mortalities were recorded during 1 month after immobilization. Conclusions and clinical relevanceThe MK and MM combinations produced sufficient immobilization in captive Persian fallow deer for short nonpainful procedures. Based on the SpO2 values, the MM combination may be associated with less respiratory depression; nevertheless, both combinations may result in a decrease in SpO2.

Temporal pattern of parturition in captive Alpine musk deer (Moschus sifanicus)

Timing and synchrony of birth influence the survival of offspring and the recruitment rate of population as well as the survival and future reproductive success of females. However, there are few studies on the timing of birth and its ecological significance of captive Alpine musk deer (Moschus sifanicus). Birth date of 332 captive Alpine musk deer were recorded between 2011 and 2017 in Xinglongshan Breeding Center of Alpine Musk Deer, Gansu Province, northwestern China. Parturition timing, parturition synchrony and birth season of Alpine musk deer were analyzed, and the effects of initiation date, climate condition, age and reproductive experience on parturition date were examined. Results showed that parturition period of captive Alpine musk deer ranged from April to September, and 80.4% of birth was concentrated in June. Median date was June 21st (i.e. average timing date) and the average parturition season was 40 days, i.e., the time for 75% of parturition to be accomplished. Median date of 2013 was significantly later than the other years (p 0.05). In addition, Initiation date exerted significant influence on parturition season (p < 0.05). In relation to climate condition, the peak period of birth took place earlier than the precipitation and temperature crests. Temperature of October and December had a significant impact on the birth time in the following year (all p < 0.05). In conclusion, Alpine musk deer has a stable pattern of parturition adapted to a captive environment. Temperature is still an important environmental factor affecting the parturition of captive Alpine musk deer.

Calibration of life history traits with epiphyseal closure, dental eruption and bone histology in captive and wild red deer.

The study of skeletochronology and bone tissue as a record of information on ontogenetic stages and events is widely used for improving the knowledge about life histories (LHs) of extinct and extant vertebrates. Compared with dinosaurs and extant reptiles, mammalian bone histology has received little attention. Here, we calibrate for the first time bone and dental age with histological bone characteristics and LH stages in ontogenetic series of red deer. We rely on known LHs of different aged individuals of captive Cervus elaphus hippelaphus from Austria to correlate epiphyseal closure, dental eruption pattern, bone growth marks and bone tissue patterns in femora and tibiae, and of wild Cervus elaphus hispanicus from Spain. Our data show that females (of both subspecies) attain skeletal maturity earlier than males. At this moment, epiphyseal closure (in femora and tibiae) and dental eruption are complete and long bones start to deposit an external fundamental system. The results also show that the attainment of reproductive maturity in red deer occurs slightly before skeletal maturity.