Captive Deer Research Articles

The applicability of DNA barcoding for dietary analysis of sika deer

AbstractIn Japan, overgrazing by sika deer (Cervus nippon) has been suggested to cause a decline in forest understory vegetation. DNA barcoding has become an accepted method for analyzing the diets of animals and may be useful for evaluating the impact of sika deer on vegetation. However, the applicability of DNA barcoding in the dietary analysis of sika deer, particularly whether all of the food plants can be detected with sufficient taxonomic resolution and whether the results can be evaluated quantitatively, has not been investigated. We conducted a feeding trial by feeding five plant species to a captive sika deer and sequenced the chloroplast trnL P6 loop region from the sika deer’s fecal DNA using the Ion PGM sequencer. We detected the sequences of all of the food plants at the species level using the local (selfproduced) database and at the genus or family level with the global database. Although the sequences of some major food plants were detected with high frequency, the proportion of consumed food plants did not match the proportion of sequences obtained from fecal DNA. With further technical advances and the further completeness of the sequence database for vegetation, DNA barcoding will be a useful tool for the dietary study of sika deer.

Molecular cloning and evolutionary analysis of captive forest musk deer bitter taste receptor gene T2R16.

Sensing bitter tastes is crucial for most animals because it can prevent them from ingesting harmful food. This process is mainly mediated by the bitter taste receptors (T2R) that are largely expressed in the taste buds. Previous studies have identified some T2R gene repertoires. Marked variation in repertoire size has been noted among species. However, research on T2Rs is still limited and the mechanisms underlying the evolution of vertebrate T2Rs remain poorly understood. In the present study, we analyzed the structure and features of the protein encoded by the forest musk deer (Moschus berezovskii) T2R16 and submitted the gene sequence to NCBI GenBank. The results showed that the full coding DNA sequence (CDS) of musk deer T2R16 (GenBank accession No. KP677279) was 906 bp, encoding 301 amino acids, which contained ATG start codon and TGA stop codon, with a calculated molecular weight of 35.03 kDa and an isoelectric point of 9.56. The T2R16 protein receptor had seven conserved transmembrane regions. Hydrophobicity analysis showed that most amino acid residues in T2R16 protein were hydrophobic, and the grand average of hydrophobicity (GRAVY) was 0.657. Phylogenetic analysis based on this gene revealed that forest musk deer had the closest association with sheep (Ovis aries), as compared to cow (Bos taurus), Tursiops truncatus, and other species, whereas it was genetically farthest from humans (Homo sapiens). We hope these results would complement the existing data on T2R16 and encourage further research in this respect.

Effects of crowding and sex on fecal cortisol levels of captive forest musk deer.

BackgroundRestricted space and close contact with conspecifics in captivity may be stressful for musk deer, as they are highly territorial and solitary in the wild. So we tested the effects of crowding on stress of forest musk deer (Moschus berezovskii) in heterosexual groups, using fecal cortisol analysis as a non-invasive method. 32 healthy adults during non-breeding seasons were chose as our experimental objects. Group 1 was defined as higher crowding condition, with 10-15 m2/deer (6 enclosures, 10♀ and 6♂); group 2 was defined as lower crowding condition, with 23-33 m2/deer (6 enclosures, 10♀ and 6♂). Every enclosure contained 1 male and 3 female. These patterns had been existed for years.ResultsThe results showed that females in lower crowding condition (217.1 ± 9.5 ug/g) had significantly higher fecal cortisol levels than those in higher crowding condition (177.2 ± 12.1 ug/g). Interestingly, crowding seemed have no effect on male fecal cortisol levels (148.1 ± 9.1 ug/g and 140.5 ± 13.3 ug/g, respectively). At both groups, cortisol was significantly lower in males than in females.ConclusionsThese results showed that chronic crowding may affect stress status of captive forest musk deer. The captive environment should consider the space need for musk deer.

Genetic diversity analysis by microsatellite markers in four captive populations of the sika deer (Cervus nippon)

The Chinese sika deer (Cervus nippon) is a rare and vulnerable animal in China for medical use. In this study, the genetic diversity and population genetic structure of 113 Chinese sika deer from 4 populations (Linyi Farm, LF; Linyi Park, LP, Yangzhou Farm, YF; Yangzhou Zoo, YZ) were investigated with 14 microsatellite loci. Eighty-three alleles were detected at the 14 loci in all populations. The expected heterozygosity ranged from 0.257 to 0.863 and the observed heterozygosity from 0.226 to 0.821. The polymorphism information content at different loci ranged from 0.217 to 0.825. The results of the HWE (Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium) tests indicated that only four loci (CEH-5, BL42, Mber70, and CEH-2) were in HWE (P > 0.01). The mean number of alleles per population ranged from 3.21 to 5.64, observed and expected heterozygosities ranged from 0.568 to 0.685, respectively. Positive inbreeding coefficient (FIS) values were found in every population. FST values ranged from 0.101 in the LF to 0.155 in the YZ. The genetic identity ranged from 0.1236 to 0.1645. The genetic distance ranged from 0.4746 to 0.6025. The results of this study indicate moderate genetic variation and polymorphism across the loci. Appropriate breeding strategies should be designed for deer in captivity.

HEMATURIA AND URINARY BLADDER LESIONS COMPATIBLE WITH BRACKEN FERN (PTERIDIUM AQUILINUM) INTOXICATION IN CAPTIVE FALLOW DEER (DAMA DAMA)

Hemangiosarcoma, hemangioma, transitional cell carcinoma, and chronic cystitis were diagnosed in the urinary bladder of six captive fallow deer (Dama dama). Hematuria and thin body condition were observed in the advanced cases. These findings were compatible with chronic enzootic hematuria and were suspected to have been induced by chronic ingestion of bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum) present on the premises. These lesions were similar to those described in bovine enzootic hematuria in cattle. Hemangiosarcoma metastases, hydronephrosis, and renal carcinoma were also associated in some cases. This is the first report of hemangioma, hemangiosarcoma, transitional cell carcinoma, and renal carcinoma of the urinary bladder in fallow deer and the first indication of bracken fern intoxication in deer.

LOW FLOW OXYGEN THERAPY FROM A PORTABLE OXYGEN CONCENTRATOR OR AN OXYGEN CYLINDER EFFECTIVELY TREATS HYPOXEMIA IN ANESTHETIZED WHITE-TAILED DEER (ODOCOILEUS VIRGINIANUS)

For treatment of hypoxemia, delivery of the minimum effective oxygen flow rate is advantageous during field anesthesia because it prolongs the life of the oxygen cylinder. Portable oxygen concentrators as the oxygen source require less logistical considerations than cylinders and are a safer alternative during helicopter field work because they are nonexplosive devices. The objective of this study was to evaluate low oxygen flow rates by continuous or pulsed intranasal delivery for treatment of hypoxemia in anesthetized white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). Nine captive adult female deer (body mass 56-72 kg) were physically restrained in a drop-floor chute and hand injected intramuscularly with medetomidine (0.1-0.14 mg/kg) and ketamine (2.5-4.3 mg/kg). Intranasal oxygen was delivered from an oxygen cylinder at continuous flow rates of 1 and 2 L/min or from a battery driven oxygen concentrator (EverGo Portable Oxygen Concentrator, Respironics) with pulse-dose delivery (maximum capacity of 1.05 L/min). The pulse-dose setting (pulse volume 12-70 ml) was adjusted according to the respiratory rate. Arterial blood gases were analyzed before, during, and after O2 supplementation. A 10-min washout period was allowed between treatment groups. All three treatments adequately treated hypoxemia. The partial pressure of arterial oxygenation increased significantly from baseline values of 55 +/- 10 to 115 +/- 31 mm Hg during supplementation from the oxygen concentrator, to 138 +/- 21 mm Hg during supplementation from the oxygen cylinder at 1 L/min, and to 201 +/- 42 mm Hg at 2 L/min. In conclusion, low flow rates of intranasal oxygen supplemented continuously from an oxygen cylinder or by pulsed delivery from a portable oxygen concentrator effectively treated hypoxemia in anesthetized white-tailed deer.

Molecular Typing of Epizootic Hemorrhagic Disease Virus Serotypes by One-Step Multiplex RT-PCR

Epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus (EHDV) causes a highly infectious noncontagious hemorrhagic disease in wild and captive deer (Cervidae) populations in the US. Although rapid and accurate identification of the disease is important, identification of the serotype is equally important for understanding the epidemiology of the disease in white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) populations. We developed a one-step multiplex reverse transcriptase PCR assay for rapid differentiation and identification of EHDV serotypes 1, 2, and 6 in cell culture and clinical samples by targeting the viral gene segment 2 (L2) that encodes for the structural protein VP2. From 2009 to 2012, 427 clinical samples including tissue and blood (in ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid) from white-tailed deer, found EHDV positive by real-time PCR, were used to evaluate this subtyping assay. Eighteen percent of the positive samples tested were EHDV-1, 59% were EHDV-2, and 21% were EHDV-6; 2% of the samples were positive for more than one subtype, indicating mixed infection. This assay provides a rapid, sensitive, specific diagnostic tool for differentiation and identification of EHDV serotypes in field samples and virus isolates.

"Atypical" chronic wasting disease in PRNP genotype 225FF mule deer.

We compared mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) of two different PRNP genotypes (225SS, 225FF) for susceptibility to chronic wasting disease (CWD) in the face of environmental exposure to infectivity. All three 225SS deer had immunohistochemistry (IHC)-positive tonsil biopsies by 710 days postexposure (dpe), developed classic clinical signs by 723-1,200 dpe, and showed gross and microscopic pathology, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) results, and IHC staining typical of prion disease in mule deer. In contrast, although all three 225FF deer also became infected, the two individuals surviving >720 dpe had consistently negative biopsies, developed more-subtle clinical signs of CWD, and died 924 or 1,783 dpe. The 225FF deer were "suspect" by ELISA postmortem but showed negative or equivocal IHC staining of lymphoid tissues; both clinically affected 225FF deer had spongiform encephalopathy in the absence of IHC staining in the brain tissue. The experimental cases resembled three cases encountered among five additional captive 225FF deer that were not part of our experiment but also died from CWD. Aside from differences in clinical disease presentation and detection, 225FF mule deer also showed other, more-subtle, atypical traits that may help to explain the rarity of this genotype in natural populations, even in the presence of enzootic CWD.

Near Infrared Spectroscopy and Fecal Chemistry as Predictors of the Diet Composition of White-Tailed Deer

Overbrowsing by white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus Zimmermann) on Anticosti Island (Canada) created a need to develop efficient methods for estimating their foraging patterns. We tested the ability of near infrared (NIR) spectra of feces and of fecal chemical properties to predict diet composition of different individuals. We first used a principal component-based discriminant analysis to sort the NIR spectra of fecal samples (n = 102) obtained from two groups of captive deer that had been fed two different diets. The diets differed only in their relative abundance of balsam fir (Abies balsamea [L.] P.Mill.) and white spruce (Picea glauca [Moench] Voss.) foliage. The calibrated model allowed us to assign 28 of 30 validation fecal samples (93.3 %) to the correct diet. In a second study, we attempted to estimate the proportion of coniferous, deciduous, herbaceous, and lichenous forages in diets of free-ranging white-tailed deer, as determined by fecal microhistology. Both NIR spectra and chemical properties of feces were used as predictors of diet composition. NIR spectra were analyzed using partial least-squares regression (PLSR), whereas fecal chemical properties were analyzed using mixed-linear regressions (MLRs). The PLSR models were robust (R2 = 0.89; ratio of prediction to deviation = 3.2) for predicting the amount of coniferous fragments, but not for predicting the relative amounts of balsam fir, white spruce, and deciduous and lichenous fragments within feces. MLR models revealed a positive relationship (47% variance explained) between acid detergent lignin (ADL) and coniferous fragments within feces. ADL and cellulose explained 24% of variance in deciduous fecal fragments, whereas ADL alone explained 22% of variance in balsam fir fecal fragments. These results suggest that NIR spectroscopy and fecal chemical properties have several applications on Anticosti Island, such as measuring the degree of variation in diets within a given home range or determining dietary conifer intake during winter.

Genetic assessment of captive Chinese water deer populations in Zhoushan Archipelago, China

Chinese water deer is a rare and vulnerable animal in China because of the poaching for medical use and the habitat loss. In this study, the genetic diversity and population genetic structure of 40 Chinese water deer from three populations in Zhoushan Archipelago were investigated with ten highly polymorphic microsatellite loci, including 4 screened from the nuclear DNA in the study, and 6 selected from the literature. According to the results, these captive populations had a higher genetic diversity than other rare cervid species, such as forest musk deer. No signs of inbreeding were detected. Low genetic differentiation among these populations was found. The probable reasons included the isolation by distance, the exchange among islands, or the supplement of the wild Chinese water deer. We proposed the deer raisers to strengthen the exchanges from different islands or mainland, and if possible, some deer would be returned to the wild to expand the wild population.

Construction of an Automatic Method to Monitor Behavior of Captive Deer using RFID

Construction of an Automatic Method to Monitor Behavior of Captive Deer using RFID

PHYSIOLOGIC EFFECTS OF THREE DIFFERENT PROTOCOLS OF ISOFLURANE ANESTHESIA IN CAPTIVE BROWN BROCKET DEER (MAZAMA GOUAZOUBIRA)

This study evaluates the cardiorespiratory and physiologic effects of three different protocols of chemical restraint using isoflurane in captive brown brocket deer (Mazama gouazoubira). Six adult deer, two males and four females, aged 3-6 yr old and weighing 16.3 +/- 1.5 kg (mean +/- SD), were used. The deer were physically restrained and anesthetized using one of three protocols: protocol 1 (P1), anesthesia was induced directly with isoflurane using a facemask and maintained for 1 hr with isoflurane delivered by endotracheal tube; protocol 2 (P2), oral premedication with midazolam was followed 1 hr later by induction and maintenance of anesthesia with isoflurane, as in P1; and protocol 3 (P3), intravenous anesthesia using a combination of ketamine, xylazine, and atropine was followed by isoflurane anesthesia, as in P1. Cardiorespiratory variables were recorded during physical restraint (TO); 5 min after intubation (T5); and every 10 min during anesthesia (T15-T55). Venous and arterial blood gas analysis was conducted at TO (venous blood only), T15, T35, and T55. Data were analyzed by the appropriate statistical tests. P values < 0.05 were considered significant. Under P1, three deer regurgitated during induction and one of them died because of aspiration pneumonia. The end-tidal isoflurane concentration differed significantly between P1, P2, and P3 (2.6 +/- 0.2, 2.3 +/- 0.5, and 0.9 +/- 0.3%, respectively). Hypotension was observed during anesthesia (T15-T55). Respiratory acidosis occurred at all times and protocols, and pH was significantly lower in P1 compared to P2 and P3. Metabolic acidosis was also observed following physical restraint (T0-T35) in all protocols. The use of isoflurane via facemask for anesthesia induction is not a safe method in deer that are not premedicated. Isoflurane used alone or in combination with midazolam and ketamine-xylazine-atropine combination causes hypotension and dose-dependent respiratory acidosis.

Testing a molasses-based bait for oral vaccination of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) against Mycobacterium bovis

White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in Michigan, USA, are wildlife reservoirs of bovine tuberculosis (bTB) with documented spread to cattle. In vaccine efficacy trials, Mycobacterium bovis bacillus Calmette–Guerin (BCG) administered orally reduces colonization and bTB-associated lesions in white-tailed deer after experimental challenge with virulent M. bovis. The objective of this study was to develop and evaluate the palatability of a molasses-based bait for oral delivery of BCG to white-tailed deer. Relevant practical properties of the bait such as physical stability under various environmental conditions were evaluated, as well as palatability. Captive deer consumed baits within 3 h of introduction during 48 of 50 trials. Digital game cameras revealed consumption of all placed baits by one deer over 62 % of the time. Addition of BCG vaccine did not negatively impact palatability. Physical stability analysis demonstrated that ice and water significantly reduced bait stability as measured with a compression assay. Storage of BCG-containing baits at 4 °C showed a slight decrease in colony-forming units (CFUs) by day 31. In contrast, storage at −20 or −80 °C over the same 31-day period showed no significant decrease in BCG viability. The results of this study suggest that molasses-based baits, as prepared here, represent a plausible means of oral delivery of BCG to white-tailed deer under most environmental conditions.

Neospora caninum is a cause of perinatal mortality in axis deer (Axis axis)

Neospora caninum is a worldwide distributed protozoan that may cause neuromuscular disease in dogs and reproductive failure in domestic and wild ruminants. One axis fawn (Axis axis) and four neonates from the same deer herd died at a zoo in Argentina within a four-month period. The fawn presented with dilatation of the anal sphincter at birth and incontinence, developed weakness and ataxia and died at 14 days of age. At necropsy, a mega formation of the distal large intestine was observed. Microscopically, non-suppurative encephalitis, suppurative bronchopneumonia, fibrin necrotic enteritis and degenerative changes in the liver were observed in hematoxilin and eosin-stained tissue sections, and thick-walled N. caninum-like cysts were observed in fresh brain samples. Serologic studies for N. caninum revealed an IFAT titer of 1:6400 in the fawn and 1:25, 1:400, 1:3200 and 1:6400 in the neonates. N. caninum DNA was detected in brain samples from the fawn and from one neonate by PCR, and the parasite was isolated in vitro from the fawn’ brain after passage through gerbils (Meriones unguiculatus) and gamma-interferon knock-out mice. N. caninum DNA obtained from the fawn, neonate and isolated parasites showed the same microsatellite pattern. This suggests a common infection source for both animals.The diagnosis of N. caninum infection was confirmed, suggesting its association with perinatal mortality in captive axis deer. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of clinical disease associated to N. caninum infection in axis deer and of isolation of the parasite from this wild ruminant species.

Effect of sex and seasons of the year on hematologic and serum biochemical variables of captive brown brocket deer (Mazama gouazoubira)

The Brown brocket deer (Mazama gouazoubira) is the most common free-living and captive deer in South America, especially in Brazil, and has great ecological and scientific significance. However, data on hematological and biochemical parameters in brown brocket deer are scarce. The goal of this study was to establish reference ranges for hematological and biochemical parameters of Mazama gouazoubira, comparing differences during the seasons of the year and between sex. Blood samples from ten adult healthy brown brocket deer (6 female and 4 male) were collected during daytime, monthly, during 12 months. The animals were maintained in individual stable, protected from noise and fed ad libitum with commercial ration and green fodder. For blood collection, animals were submitted to physical restrain for no longer than 2 minutes. The following parameters were determined: red blood cell count (RBC), haemoglobin concentration, packed cell volume (PCV), mean corpuscular volume (MCV), mean corpuscular haemoglobin (MCH), mean corpuscular haemoglobin concentration (MCHC), white blood cell count (WBC), platelet count, enzyme activity of alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT) and serum levels of alkaline phosphatase (ALP), creatine kinase (CK), total protein (TP), albumin, cholesterol, total calcium, ionic calcium, sodium, potassium, magnesium, triglycerides, creatinine and urea. Values were compared according to season and sex. RBC count, WBC count and MCV suggested seasonal influence. Haemoglobin concentration, PCV and MCV were influenced by sex. Serum concentration of total calcium, ionic calcium, sodium, potassium and magnesium were influenced by season. Serum magnesium was also influenced by sex. The blood parameters herein reported may be useful as reference values for diagnostic and prognostic purposes in captive brown-brocket deer.

A case of chronic wasting disease in a captive red deer (Cervus elaphus)

A 22-month-old, female red deer (Cervus elaphus) was submitted to the University of Minnesota Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory for necropsy and chronic wasting disease (CWD) testing. The deer was found positive for the abnormal prion protein in the obex and the retropharyngeal lymph node by immunohistochemical staining. Microscopic lesions of spongiform encephalopathy and immunohistochemical staining patterns and intensity were similar to those in CWD-positive elk and experimentally infected red deer.

Immunization with a Synthetic Peptide Vaccine Fails to Protect Mule Deer (Odocoileus hemionus) from Chronic Wasting Disease

Chronic wasting disease (CWD) adversely affects both wild and captive cervid populations. A vaccine to prevent CWD would be a highly desirable tool to aid in disease management. To this end, we tested in mule deer a combination of CWD vaccines consisting of cervid prion peptide sequences 168-VDQYNNQNTFVHDC-182 and 145-NDYEDRYYRENMYRYPNQ-164 that had previously been shown to delay onset of clinical disease and increase survival in a mouse-adapted scrapie model. Thirteen captive mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) were divided into vaccine (n=7) and control groups (n=6), and given prime and boost vaccinations intramuscularly 5 wk apart. Eight weeks postprime (3 wk postboost), all animals were challenged via natural exposure to an environment contaminated with infective CWD prions. Deer were monitored intermittently for prion infection by rectal and tonsil biopsies beginning 275 days postchallenge. All vaccinates responded to both peptide conjugates present in the combination vaccine as measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. However, all deer eventually became infected regardless of vaccine status.

Age and Gender Affect Epiphyseal Closure in White-tailed Deer

Abstract Timing of epiphyseal closure determines length of long bones and thus body size, but factors affecting epiphyseal closure in Odocoileus virginianus (White-tailed Deer) have not been conclusively quantified. We collected morphometric data and radiographic images of the distal humerus, proximal radius, distal radius, and metacarpus on approximately 0.5-, 1.5-, 2.5-, and 3.5-year-old optimally nourished captive deer. Age affected closure of distal radial and metacarpal epiphyseal plates (P < 0.001), with all individuals exhibiting epiphyseal closure by 3.5 years of age. Gender affected closure of the distal radial epiphyseal plates (P = 0.036), with females closing prior to males. Differential bone growth rate prior to epiphyseal closure may be one mechanism by which individual and cohort phenotypic effects are manifested in cervids.

Evaluation of knowledge, attitudes, and practices of deer owners following identification of a cluster of captive deer with rabies in Pennsylvania in July 2010

To evaluate knowledge, attitudes, and practices of deer owners following identification of a cluster of captive deer with rabies as an aid for the development of rabies prevention educational materials. Cross-sectional study. Captive-deer owners who were members of the pennsylvania deer farmers association. Information was obtained via a mailed, self-administered questionnaire. The questionnaire response rate was 59% (249/425). One hundred three of 206 (50%) respondents had incomplete knowledge of rabies virus vectors, transmission, severity, and prevention measures. Birds or snakes were incorrectly identified as rabies vectors by 96 of 213 (45%) respondents, and most (≥ 94%) respondents identified rabies virus reservoirs as vectors. Ninety of 231 (39%) respondents identified death as an outcome of rabies, and 184 of 235 (78%) respondents would seek emergency treatment if they suspected exposure. Only 62 of 235 (26%) respondents would wash a wound immediately. The majority of respondents (173/239 [72%]) did not know the clinical signs of rabies in deer. Nine respondents indicated that they vaccinated their deer against rabies, and the majority of respondents (158/214 [74%]) would be willing to vaccinate. Findings suggested that deer owners in Pennsylvania have a basic knowledge of rabies; however, knowledge, attitudes, and practices regarding prevention of rabies transmission could be improved considerably. Rabies educational materials for deer owners should focus on postexposure procedures, disease severity, recognition of rabies in deer, and changes in management practices such as vaccination to prevent rabies.

Estimating Boone and Crockett scores for white-tailed deer from simple antler measurements

Antler characteristics are a measure of phenotypic quality and are used by wildlife managers and hunters to assess herd characteristics of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). A single metric for antler quality would benefit scientists, wildlife managers, and the hunting public by providing a common gauge. Total antler volume or mass may be the most accurate measure of antler development, but is not practical to obtain from most hunter-harvested animals. The most accepted single measure of antler size is Boone & Crockett (B&C) score. We confirmed the efficacy of gross B&C scores as a predictor of antler mass (g) using antler measurements from 159 captive deer from the Mississippi State University Rusty Dawkins Memorial Deer Unit taken during 1986-1997. Gross B&C score explained 78% of variation in antler mass and was the best 1-variable predictive model. However, calculation of gross B&C score may require � 11 measurements for most harvested adult males. To test the possibility of deriving a simple model to predict gross B&C score from a reduced number of measurements, we used data from 3,532 deer in the Mississippi Magnolia Records Program to examine regression models using inside spread, number of antler points, basal circumference, and main beam length as explanatory variables, because these are the most common antler measurements recorded by wildlife managers. A simple model using total number of points � 2.5 cm and length of main beams explained 77% of variability in gross B&C scores. This model should enable hunters to provide accurate information to biologists regarding antler development in adult age classes, and its relative simplicity may encourage use. 2013 The Wildlife Society.