Distribution Of Deer Research Articles

Predation risk across a dynamic landscape: effects of anthropogenic land use, natural landscape features, and prey distribution

Human-mediated landscape changes alter habitat configuration, which strongly structures animal distributions and interspecific interactions. The effects of anthropogenic disturbance on predator–prey relationships are fundamental to ecology, yet less well understood. We determined where predation events occurred for fawn and adult female mule deer from 2008 to 2014 in critical winter range with extensive energy development. We investigated the relationship between predation sites, energy infrastructure, and natural landscape features across contiguous areas experiencing different degrees of energy extraction during periods of high and low intensity development. We contrast spatial correlates of 286 mortality locations with random landscape locations and mule deer distribution estimated from 350,000 GPS locations. We estimated predation risk with resource selection functions and latent selection difference functions. Relative to the distribution of mule deer, predation risk was lower closer to pipelines and well pads, but higher closer to roads. Predation sites occurred more than expected relative to availability and deer distribution in deeper snow and non-forested habitats. Anthropogenic features had a greater influence on predation sites during the period of low activity than high activity, and natural landscape characteristics had weaker effects relative to anthropogenic features throughout the study. Though canids accounted for the majority of predation events, felids exhibited stronger landscape associations, driving the observed spatial patterns in predation risk to mule deer. The emergence of varied interactions between predation and landscape features across contexts and years highlights the complexity of interspecific interactions in highly modified landscapes.

Current distribution and habitat preferences of red deer and eurasian elk in the Czech Republic

Here we determine the distribution, numbers and habitat preferences of two of the largest species in the family Cervidae present in the Czech Republic, red deer and Eurasian elk. Red deer occurs predominantly in vast areas of forest, i.e. mainly in the mountains bordering this country and several large forest units in the interior. The range of this species has been increasing along with the size of its population. Areas of its permanent occurrence may be generally characterized as regions largely covered with deciduous and coniferous forests and pastures, and regions with a more diverse landscape. Red deer does not occur in areas that are mainly arable or urban, or in areas covered with extensive water bodies and wetlands. As these animals prefer large forests, they occur mainly at high altitudes where the terrain is rugged. The Eurasian elk permanently occurs in the Czech Republic in a single area located between the state border and the right bank of the Lipno Dam. Its home range has been diminishing, presumably along with its numbers. The area of its permanent occurrence is characterized by an abundance of coniferous trees, some pastures and water bodies. The Eurasian elk does not occur in areas covered with arable and urban land but also surprisingly in areas with mainly deciduous forest. Both species prefer high altitudes, but Eurasian elk prefers areas with little difference in the terrain vertically.

Population and genetic diversity of Tibetan red deer based on fecal DNA

The Tibet Shannan Red Deer Nature Reserve is the center of the geographic distribution of Tibetan red deer. This paper presents the results of DNA analysis of 199 red deer fecal pellet groups collected during 2013 and 2014 during the green-plant period. We successfully extracted DNA from 87 DNA pellet groups and determined individual identification with 12 microsatellite loci. We evaluated the genetic diversity of the population and various population estimates with Capwire in R software. The 87 successfully extracted pellet groups were from 50 individuals. In the population, the average number of alleles was 7.58 ± 0.18, the average effective number of alleles was 4.58 ± 0.15, and average polymorphism information content was 0.67 ± 0.01. Among the 12 loci, only T123 was moderately polymorphic; the other 11 loci were highly polymorphic. Expected heterozygosity ranged from 0.45 to 0.91, with an average of 0.72 ± 0.01, and average observed heterozygosity was 0.52 ± 0.11. Although Tibetan red deer remains endangered, the high genetic diversity indicates that this population has a good chance of recovery. This study provided insight that could be used by the local forestry department to develop programs to protect Tibetan red deer.

Relative habitat- and browse-use of native desert mule deer and exotic oryx in the greater San Andres Mountains, New Mexico

Introduced oryx (Oryx gazella gazella) have expanded into the San Andres Mountains of south-central New Mexico, but little is known of concurrent habitat used by oryx and desert mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus crooki); the latter in New Mexico is a species of special concern that has declined signifi cantly since the introduction of oryx. We used fecal-pellet and browse surveys in combination with presence modeling to identify differences in relative use of habitat types, distribution, and browsing of highly palatable, highly preferred (hereafter, key) plant species during 2004 to 2006 to assess the potential for direct competition in use of resources in the San Andres Mountains. Numbers of pellet groups per transect (hereafter referred to as relative use) of oryx was greatest in sandsage (Artemisia fi lifolia) shrublands and alkali sacaton (Sporobolus airoides) grasslands, whereas mule deer-use was greatest in oak- (Quercus spp.) mountain mahogany (Cercocarpus montanus) shrublands, and pinyon- (Pinus edulis) juniper (Juniperus spp.) woodlands. Use of key mule deer browse species was low (<4.0% of current annual growth browsed) in all habitat types. Relative use of oryx accounted for 42% of the variation in browse percentages in pinyon-juniper woodlands and 58% of the variation in mesquite (Prosopis glandulosa) shrublands, whereas mule deer-use accounted for 79% of the variation in oak-mountain mahogany shrublands and 27% in pinyon-juniper woodlands. Presence models similarly indicated that deer distribution was most positively associated with oak-mountain mahogany shrublands and pinyon-juniper woodlands, while oryx distribution was most positively associated with alkali sacaton grasslands, mixed lowland scrub, and sandsage shrublands. Presence models also indicated that areas closer to roads were positively associated with presence of mule deer and oryx, as were southern aspects for oryx and higher elevations for mule deer. Relationships with roads were likely driven by other attributes (e.g., water sources, arroyos, and canyons) associated with these areas in the San Andres Mountains. Current management strategies aimed at limiting oryx numbers in woodland and shrubland habitat types located in mountainous areas of the San Andres Mountains that show highest use by mule deer should continue to aide in recovery of mule deer populations.

Species, sex, and individual identification of Japanese serow (Capricornis crispus) and sika deer (Cervus nippon) in sympatric region based on the fecal DNA samples

We describe non-invasive molecular techniques for species, sex, and individual identification using fecal of the sympatric species, Japanese serow (Capricornis crispus) and sika deer (Cervus nippon), in Japan. From screening 19 microsatellites using 52 tissue samples of the two species, we selected 14 and 10 highly polymorphic loci for Japanese serow and sika deer, respectively, of which five loci could be amplified across the species. First, species identification using two cross-species-amplifiable loci and sex identification based on a partial amelogenin gene sequence were conducted on 194 fecal samples from Eastern Shikoku, Japan. PCR amplification of 65 fecal samples for new and relatively new fecal pellets identified 35 Japanese serow and 30 sika deer. In Japanese serow, 14 individuals (7 males and 7 females) were identified using 11 of 14 microsatellites. In sika deer, 19 individuals (11 males and 8 females) were identified using 9 of 10 microsatellites. This non-invasive genetic technique using fecal samples should be useful to study the distribution, gene flow, sex ratio, and population size of sympatric Japanese serow and sika deer.

Climate change is the primary driver of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) range expansion at the northern extent of its range; land use is secondary.

Quantifying the relative influence of multiple mechanisms driving recent range expansion of non‐native species is essential for predicting future changes and for informing adaptation and management plans to protect native species. White‐tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) have been expanding their range into the North American boreal forest over the last half of the 20th century. This has already altered predator–prey dynamics in Alberta, Canada, where the distribution likely reaches the northern extent of its continuous range. Although current white‐tailed deer distribution is explained by both climate and human land use, the influence each factor had on the observed range expansion would depend on the spatial and temporal pattern of these changes. Our objective was to quantify the relative importance of land use and climate change as drivers of white‐tailed deer range expansion and to predict decadal changes in white‐tailed deer distribution in northern Alberta for the first half of the 21st century. An existing species distribution model was used to predict past decadal distributions of white‐tailed deer which were validated using independent data. The effects of climate and land use change were isolated by comparing predictions under theoretical “no‐change between decades” scenarios, for each factor, to predictions under observed climate and land use change. Climate changes led to more than 88%, by area, of the increases in probability of white‐tailed deer presence across all decades. The distribution is predicted to extend 100 km further north across the northeastern Alberta boreal forest as climate continues to change over the first half of the 21st century.

Tending and drive hunting: A density-mediated attrition model can explain age profiles of white-tailed deer at Iroquoian village sites

In a 1993 paper, Noble and Crerar suggested, based on the age and sex distribution of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) longbones from four Attawandaron Iroquoian sites around the western end of Lake Ontario, that the contact-period Attawandaron were managing local deer populations, in response to the aboriginal trade in hides. Having observed similar patterns of differential preservation of elements and epiphyseal fusion at nearby Iroquoian sites that are not ascribed to the Attawandaron, and which pre-date the hypothesised trading period, we argue that these patterns may instead relate to bone density and/or vulnerability to taphonomic effects of late-fusing epiphyses. We further support our argument through age profiles based on dental eruption and wear.

Long-term assessment of roe deer reintroductions in North-East Spain: A case of success

Worldwide species relocations are increasingly becoming an important part of species recovery programmes and ecosystem restoration initiatives. Monitoring reintroduced populations after release, in addition to understanding which factors affect translocations, is fundamental to understand the reintroduction process and to maximize the success of future interventions. By using boosted regression trees we evaluated the contribution of roe deer Capreolus capreolus reintroductions (1971–2008) to the current distribution of this species in Catalonia (Spain), and a partial least square regression approach was used to evaluate the influence of some variables as key for the roe deer reintroduction success. Our results show that roe deer currently occupies 85% of Catalonia territory, which represents an almost six-fold increase since the beginning of the 90s. Proximity to the nearest reintroduction nuclei was identified as one of the main drivers positively associated to the current distribution of roe deer in Catalonia, whereas the number of years after the first reintroductions and the number of animals released were important to the success of the reintroductions. We recommend the reintroduction of roe deer to release sites that contain large and suitable patches of habitat and that are sufficiently close to allow population continuity.

Pattern and Drivers of White-Tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginianus) Herbivory on Tree Saplings across a Plateau Landscape

White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) populations are impacting long-term regeneration across eastern United States forests. Deer distribution and resulting herbivory patterns are variable across a landscape due to habitat patchiness and topography. It is poorly understood how features associated with topography control deer herbivory. We examined the heterogeneity of deer herbivory as it affects sapling densities across a single forest-type landscape on the Cumberland Plateau. The 1242 hectare site represented a peninsula of tableland that transitioned from developed land to forest and was surrounded on three sides by a bluff, irregularly punctuated by drainages. We examined the spatial variability of deer impacts on sapling density and modeled the relative importance of plateau accessibility features related to topography, proximity to edge, and deer culling as predictors of sapling variation. We used a stratified random design to sample sapling density across the landscape in 2012 and 2015. The intensity of deer herbivory on saplings varied, with the fewest saplings in forests surrounded by residential development. Our model predicted that plateau accessibility measures best determined sapling densities, followed by distance from edge and deer culling measures. Our results suggest that herbivory impacts may not be homogeneous in a contiguous uniform landscape if there are topographic barriers.

Influence of habitat fragmentation on bundance of Mazama temama at different scales in the cloud forest

Brocket deer inhabit two of the most threatened ecosystems in Mexico: the cloud forest and tropical evergreen forest, due to the lack of studies little is known about their current condition. However it is believed that it is threatened by various factors among them hunting, loss and fragmentation of habitat. In this paper we established a conceptual model a priori about the relationships between deer and their habitat where we included elements of microhabitat and landscape to determine how it affects the abundance and distribution of brocket deer in the mountains of the state of Hidalgo, Mexico. We selected 14 different forested sites, in each we established two transects 250 m long where the relative abundance of tracks was estimated. During April 2011 to March 2012 three sampling visit were made in each transect. In the transects we measured: forest structure, protective cover, low tree and shrub layer. For each site we considered the size and shape of the fragments and their matrix. To determine which variables influenced the abundance of tracks we used general linear regression models. 352 brocket deer tracks were recorded in 21 km of linear transects. The average relative abundance was 16.76 tracks/km. More tracks were found in sites with higher tree density 0.4 trees / m2, 60 % canopy cover, 70 % protection cover for fawns and 50 % for adults, higher linear density 0.5 ind / 25m and shrub richness of more than four species. The abundance of deer had a positive linear relationship with the density of tree coverage to protect adults and brocket deer importance value of edible trees (P < 0.001). The estimated abundance of tracks was higher than the reported in other sites. Our data suggest that the sites C2, C4 and C7 were better suited for deer use and possibly their movements to other sites attracted by some crops, but more specific studies would be necessary like radio-telemetry to test this assumption. This research indicated that brocket deer behaves like a forest specialist, as their abundance and welfare depends on food availability, habitat quality in terms of forest cover and the remoteness of settlements, which are generally the best preserved and most inaccessible fragments.

Changes in spatial patterns of sika deer distribution and herbivory of planted seedlings: a comparison before and after deer population control by culling

Sika deer (Cervus nippon) sometimes cause extensive damage to planted tree seedlings. To evaluate the effects of culling on the spatial distribution patterns of sika deer and browse damage to planted seedlings, we compared the data collected before and after experimental culling in a cool, temperate, mixed forest on Kyushu Island, Japan. Experimental culling, conducted in an area of 1 km2, removed five, four and two sika deer in April, June and October 2011, respectively. During the year before culling, the spatial pattern of the number of sika deer caught on camera corresponded to the predicted sika deer density. Sika deer immediately browsed planted seedlings after the initial planting. The cumulative number of browsed seedlings increased over time, especially in winter. The spatial pattern of the cumulative number of sika deer caught on camera corresponded to that of browsed seedlings at the year's end. During the year when culling was conducted, the number of sika deer caught on camera decreased around the center of the study site where the culling was conducted and the number of browsed seedlings decreased. During the year following culling, the cumulative number of browsed seedlings was very similar to that in the year before the culling, while the same low number of sika deer was caught on camera. These results indicate that the effects of deer culling resulted in decreased levels of sika deer appearance and browse damage for more than 1 year and for several months, respectively.

Assessing landscape resistance to roe deer dispersal using fuzzy set theory and multicriteria analysis: a case study in Central Spain

The central Iberian Peninsula has one of the highest densities of roe deer populations in Spain. A new motorway is planned to pass through the middle of the distribution of roe deer, thus making it necessary to conduct a connectivity analysis. A map of resistance to roe deer dispersal movements was obtained based on the literature and expert judgment. Three factors were selected: land use (defined by the ability to hide movements, food source, and degree of naturalness), landforms, and influence due to proximity to elements that increase (such as roads and urban areas) or decrease (water resources and proximity to optimal habitat patches) resistance at the local level. Different combinations of factors derived using the analytical hierarchy and fuzzy logic processes were analysed and compared with the real distribution of the species. More realistic resistance (cost) values were obtained for gamma values close to 0.9. This highlights the greater predominance of the fuzzy sum over the fuzzy product in modelling the cost surface. Better results were obtained in scenarios where the predominant factors were either land use and landforms or land use and proximity to human-modified areas. This indicates that roe deer will readily range far from their optimal patches if the land use provides partial cover. These movements appear to be conditioned by steep terrain. Our case study offers a good example of building a cost resistance matrix to help locate areas where the expansion of the species may be curbed or encouraged.

A novel and rapid diagnostic method for discriminating between feces of sika deer and Japanese serow by loop-mediated isothermal amplification.

Severe damages to natural vegetation, agriculture, and forestry caused by overpopulation of sika deer (Cervus nippon) have markedly increased in Japan in recent years. To devise a population management plan of sika deer, information on the distribution and population size of the animal in each region is indispensable. An easy and effective method to obtain this information is to count the fecal pellets in the field. However, the habitat of sika deer in Japan overlaps that of Japanese serow (Capricornis crispus). Additionally, it is difficult to discriminate between the feces of both animals. Here, we present a rapid and precise diagnostic method for discriminating between the feces of sika deer and Japanese serow using loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) targeting cytochrome b gene in the mitochondrial DNA. Our results showed that the LAMP can discriminate between the feces of sika deer and Japanese serow, and the method is simpler and more sensitive than the conventional molecular diagnostic method. Since LAMP method does not require special skills for molecular biology techniques, even the field researchers who have never done a molecular experiment can easily carry out the protocol. In addition, the entire protocol, from DNA extraction from fecal pellet to identification of species, takes only about 75min and does not require expensive equipment. Hence, this diagnostic method is simple, fast, and accessible to anyone. As such, the method can be a useful tool to estimate distribution and population size of sika deer.

Evaluating the Effectiveness of Two Distance-Sampling Techniques for Monitoring Roe Deer (Capreolus capreolus) Densities

Monitoring wild cervid populations have become a priority for management. However, accurate and reliable estimates of densities are difficult to achieve since they may be affected by environmental variation, species behaviour or observational issues. Therefore, to obtain unbiased estimates of densities it is necessary to adopt sampling methods that quantify the probability to detect the target species. In this study, we compare the results of roe deer sampling based on distance detection performed by two techniques: surveys on foot in the evening and nocturnal surveys by car. Estimates of roe deer population densities were conducted in Sierra de Guadarrama (Madrid, Spain). Distance sampling was conducted along tracks in 10 pine forests in October. Observations from the surveys done on foot were better fitted with detection functions, although this technique required more days and more observers for its realization, hence increasing field effort. Nocturnal surveys by car were also a proper technique and decreased distance sampling costs, since only three people were needed for 6 days to carry them out. However, observations obtained with this technique showed an imbalance in the detection function in the first few metres. This model was limited by the small number of roe deer observed in or near the line of progression. This is a handicap because functions used by the Distance software assume that the highest probability of detecting specimens is in the line of progression, causing an imbalance in the detection function at zero distance. To compensate for this, data were lefttruncated at 20 m. Therefore, when it is necessary to estimate absolute densities of roe deer populations, nocturnal distance sampling by car seems to be the most appropriate method due to its low cost, yet the influence of the vehicle on the distribution of roe deer and, therefore, on the estimated density, must be taken into account when carrying out such studies.

Using Zero-Inflated Models to Predict the Relative Distribution and Abundance of Roe Deer Over Very Large Spatial Scales

In Norway, recovering populations of large carnivores commonly prey on roe deer (Capreolus capreolus). Understanding predator habitat use and ecology requires fine-scaled information on prey distribution and abundance. However, the massive spatial scales at which large carnivores use the landscape presents many practical and statistical challenges for developing functional prey distribution models. Pellet-count data from > 1000 km of transects gathered across southeastern Norway between 2005 and 2011 were used to derive a map of the relative prey abundance for roe deer. These data were modeled using zero-inflated hurdle models using both environmental and anthropogenic variables. Snow depth and agricultural fields were the most significant variables in explaining both presence and abundance. Internal k-cross validation of the model showed medium accuracy (Spearman's r = 0.35), whereas external evaluation carried out on the basis of independently collected snow-tracking data (Spearman's r = 0.37) and hunti...

Country, cover or protection: what shapes the distribution of red deer and roe deer in the Bohemian Forest Ecosystem?

The Bohemian Forest Ecosystem encompasses various wildlife management systems. Two large, contiguous national parks (one in Germany and one in the Czech Republic) form the centre of the area, are surrounded by private hunting grounds, and hunting regulations in each country differ. Here we aimed at unravelling the influence of management-related and environmental factors on the distribution of red deer (Cervus elaphus) and roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) in this ecosystem. We used the standing crop method based on counts of pellet groups, with point counts every 100 m along 218 randomly distributed transects. Our analysis, which accounted for overdispersion as well as zero inflation and spatial autocorrelation, corroborated the view that both human management and the physical and biological environment drive ungulate distribution in mountainous areas in Central Europe. In contrast to our expectations, protection by national parks was the least important variable for red deer and the third important out of four variables for roe deer; protection negatively influenced roe deer distribution in both parks and positively influenced red deer distribution in Germany. Country was the most influential variable for both red and roe deer, with higher counts of pellet groups in the Czech Republic than in Germany. Elevation, which indicates increasing environmental harshness, was the second most important variable for both species. Forest cover was the least important variable for roe deer and the third important variable for red deer; the relationship for roe deer was positive and linear, and optimal forest cover for red deer was about 70% within a 500 m radius. Our results have direct implications for the future conservation management of deer in protected areas in Central Europe and show in particular that large non-intervention zones may not cause agglomerations of deer that could lead to conflicts along the border of protected, mountainous areas.

Cost-effective nocturnal distance sampling for landscape monitoring of ungulate populations

Estimating the size of ungulate populations dwelling forested habitats is technically difficult and expensive. In particular, population assessment via conventional distance sampling (CDS) at landscape scales is challenging and often discarded for its high costs. The development of a framework for its methodological optimization is mandatory. To tackle this issue, we used survey simulations. For arbitrary-distributed populations, we compared the following: (i) systematic random transect allocation, (ii) random selection of footpaths, and (iii) two-stage sampling selection of footpaths (2, 5, 10 blocks). The performance of two-stage sampling and random footpath selection estimators was similar. Then, we applied previous results to estimate the size of a red deer (Cervus elaphus) population in the Italian Apennines. Using data from a pilot survey, we estimated density via CDS and density surface modeling (DSM), and we quantified survey costs per unit effort. Considering our deer distribution, we finally simulated and evaluated the cost-effectiveness of the abovementioned designs for a range of realistic efforts (25–65 transects). CDS produced a negatively biased and less precise estimate than the corresponding DSM. For an effort of 65 transects, design (ii) estimates were unbiased (coefficient of variation = 0.31), while design (iii) provided negatively biased estimates (coefficient of variation = 0.27). Two-stage sampling designs with few blocks were less expensive than other designs in attaining the same level of precision, and they emerged as a cost-effective survey design. Our simulation approach thus provided managers a readily available tool to improve the estimate of ungulate abundances at a landscape scale.

Snow sinking depth and forest canopy drive winter resource selection more than supplemental feeding in an alpine population of roe deer

In alpine environments, snow typically reduces the accessibility of herbivores to food during winter and may hamper survival in those species with poor adaptation to move in deep snow. Supplemental feeding systems compensate for food limitation, but modify resource distribution and potentially affect individual space use. We investigated the importance of snow cover and supplemental feeding in shaping winter habitat use and selection of the European roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), a small deer species not specifically adapted to snow. We applied a used/available experimental design to assess the effects of snow cover on roe deer distribution at a fine scale and compared this approach with remotely sensed satellite data, available at moderate spatial resolution (snow MODIS). Based on this, we developed a resource selection function. We found a strong selection for habitat spots covered by forest where snow sinking depth was less pronounced, likely providing thermal and hiding protection on the one side and minimising the effect of snow on locomotion on the other. Roe deer showed only a minor preference for sites in proximity to feeding stations, possibly compensating the costs of access to these sites by means of a ‘trail-making’ behaviour. Snow cover assessed by moderate resolution satellite was not proportional to roe deer probability of use, highlighting the importance of local information on snow quality and distribution to complement remotely sensed data.

DISTRIBUCIÓN REGIONAL DEL VENADO TEMAZATE ROJO (Mazama temama) EN EL ESTADO DE PUEBLA, MÉXICO

El objetivo de este trabajo fue conocer la distribución del venado temazate rojo (Mazama temama) en Puebla, a través de un muestreo en campo, fundamentado en referencias bibliográficas y entrevistas a personas relacionadas con la especie. El muestreo se realizó mediante el recorrido de cuadrantes lineales con longitud variable y anchura fija, para determinar la presencia del venado por medio de la observación directa (animales observados) e indirecta (huellas, excretas, talladeros o animales cautivos). La distribución regional se obtuvo a partir de la información generada en los sitios donde se corroboró la presencia de temazate, con ayuda de un Sistema de Información Geográfica (SIG), empleando el programa Arc View 3.2. Los resultados del SIG sugieren que el venado se distribuye en el Totonacapan y la zona poniente de la Sierra Norte y en la zona oriental de la Sierra Negra, en una superficie total de 99,410.96 ha. El índice de similitud (95.2) entre sierras, por evidencia directa o por rastros, indica presencia y distribución similar de temazate rojo, concordando con los resultados del SIG. Se concluye que la distribución regional de temazate rojo en Puebla se concentra en 42 municipios pertenecientes a la Sierra Norte y zona oriental de la Sierra Negra.

Urban predator–prey association: coyote and deer distributions in the Chicago metropolitan area

We examined how predator or prey presence, as well as local and landscape factors, influence the distribution of coyotes (Canis latrans) and white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in the Chicago metropolitan area. We collected data for 2 years at 93 study sites along 3 transects of urbanization using motion-triggered cameras. Our primary objective was to determine the relationship among coyote and deer spatial and temporal distribution, habitat characteristics, and human activity using multi-season patch occupancy models. Coyote occupancy was most strongly linked to rates of site visitation by humans and dogs, and was more likely farther from the urban center, with coyote colonization of sites inversely related to road density, housing density, and human and dog site visitation. Deer more frequently occupied sites with high canopy cover near water sources and colonized smaller sites with reduced housing density and human and dog presence. Expected predator–prey dynamics were altered in this highly urban system. Though we predicted deer would avoid coyotes on the landscape based on an “ecology of fear” framework, deer and coyote occupancy showed a strong positive association. We suggest that a scarcity of quality habitat in urban areas may cause the species to co-occupy habitat despite potential fawn predation. Modifying human foot traffic in green spaces may represent a useful tool for management and conservation of large urban mammals.