Decline In Test Scores Research Articles

Failure in HiRes Ultra Series Recall Devices Does Not Necessarily Lead to Decrement in Performance.

To understand the impact on speech perception for patients experiencing Advanced Bionics V1 series Ultra and Ultra 3D cochlear implant failure. Retrospective cohort study. Tertiary academic center. Adult patients implanted with V1 series devices. Device integrity and speech perception testing. consonant-nucleus-consonant and AzBio in quiet speech recognition scores. At our institution, 116 V1 series cochlear implants were placed in 114 patients. Thirteen devices in prelingual patients were excluded, leaving 103 (89%) for final analysis. Forty-eight (46.6%) devices were considered as failed using the company provided EFI analysis tool. There were 36 (65.5%) of the remaining 55 devices that consistently tested within normal range; the remainder lost to follow-up with unknown status. Among the 48 device failures, 29 were revised and 19 patients were not revised. Among those not revised, 11 self-opted for observation (57.9%). Observed patients, despite impedance changes meeting failure criteria, had no subjective or objective changes in speech perception. Sentence testing scores for failure patients who elected observation (82.9 ± 11.4%) were significantly higher at failure compared with those opting for revision (55 ± 22.8%, p = 0.006). For those undergoing revision surgery, significant improvement in post-activation scores was noted as compared with time of failure with a mean improvement of 12.9% (p = 0.002, n = 24) for consonant-nucleus-consonant word scores and 17.2% (p = 0.001, n = 19) for AzBio in quiet scores. Proactive monitoring using EFI identifies a higher rate of Ultra Series V1 device failure than previously reported. However, about 20% of these patients may not have subjective change in hearing or objective decline in test scores and could be observed. Should performance worsen, reimplantation provides significant improvement in speech recognition.

Using technology to prevent fraud in high stakes national school examinations: Evidence from Indonesia

Cheating reduces the signaling value of examinations. It also shifts the focus of teachers and students away from learning. Combating widespread cheating is difficult as students, teachers, and bureaucrats all benefit from high reported grades. We evaluate the impact of computer-based testing (CBT), an at-scale policy implemented by the Indonesian government to reduce widespread cheating in the national examinations. Exploiting the phased roll-out of the program from 2015 to 2019, we find that test scores declined dramatically, by 0.5 standard deviations, after the introduction of CBT. Schools with response patterns that indicated cheating prior to CBT adoption experienced a steeper decline. The effect is similar between schools with and without access to a computer lab, indicating that the reduction in the opportunity to cheat is the main reason for the test score decline. In districts with high adoption of CBT, schools that still used paper-based exams cheated less and scored lower, indicating spillovers of CBT. The results highlight the potential role of technology in improving the effectiveness in efforts to overcome collusive behavior in the education sector.

The effectiveness of online teaching and learning compared to in-person instruction in science for junior secondary students: a case study in the Kurunegala education zone

Schools and Universities in Sri Lanka have been closed intermittently during the past three years due to COVID-19 and fuel shortages. During this period, in-person teaching became impossible, and online teaching was developed. However, schools have been reopened for in-person teaching and learning at present. In contrast, other countries adopted both methods, online and in-person. It was noticed that a decline in test scores among junior secondary students in some education zones during online learning. This study aimed to assess and compare the effectiveness of online and in-person teaching and learning science among junior secondary students in a selected school within the Kurunegala education zone. The study objectives were to 1). conduct both online and in-person science lessons for two groups separately and compare grade-eight students' performance in both settings; 2) compare teacher-student interaction, learning resources, peer group interaction, and motivation in both sittings; and 3) make suggestions for effective teaching and learning process. Two equally weighted courses were used to teach the two groups. Convenience sample of 72 Grade 8 students was used in the data collection with mixed methods approach. Pre-tests, post-tests, and questionnaires were used in the quantitative data collection. Qualitative data were collected via interviews with ten randomly selected students. The findings revealed that the performance scores of in-person group in Unit 4 (Properties of Matter) of grade-eight Science evaluation were slightly higher than that of online group. Both groups demonstrated similar performance levels in Unit 8 (Changes in Matter). However, in-person teaching exhibited significantly higher scores (p < 0.05) than the online group for factors such as teacher-student interaction, peer group interaction, learning resources, and motivation. Students achieved high results in both settings but needed more resources, reliable internet facilities, and adequate technology skills for online teaching and learning. The study suggests adapting effective instructional methods, technology usage, resource availability, training, participation, peer interactions, and monitoring well-being for effective online science teaching.

Longitudinal trajectories of cognitive decline and cerebral blood flow abnormalities in octogenarian men with normal global cognition

AimsCognitive and perfusion changes have been previously observed in older men with Mini Mental State Examination scores>24 points. We aimed to investigate time change in cognitive domains in a cohort of non-demented men between age 68 and 82, and how they are expressed in regional defects estimated by Cerebral Blood Flow (rCBF). Methods103 men at age 81 with MMSE scores >24 (mean 28.4 ± 1.7), no dementia or stroke, were examined with the same cognitive test battery at age 68 and age 81: Synonyms (SRB-1), Block design (SRB-3), Paired Associates, Digit Symbol Substitution and Benton Visual Retention test. rCBF was estimated using 99mTc-HMPAO SPECT at age 82. ResultsBetween ages 68 and 82 we observed a relative decline (Δ%) of cognitive test scores: SRB-3 and Benton tests, -33.7 % (SD 16,8) and -25.8 % (SD 23.9) respectively, followed by Digit Symbol test: -22,6 % (SD 15,6). The cluster of men (46 %) could be detected, grouped on the largest test score decline and highest overall test predictors’ importance in decreasing order: Δ% SRB-3, Δ% Paired Associates, Δ% Digit Symbol, Δ% Benton VR and Δ% SRB-1. Compared to the cluster with stable cognitive functions, it expressed lower rCBF in frontal and parietal lobes, and in subcortical areas. ConclusionNearly half of the studied, community-dwelling cohort of non-demented, octogenarian men with MMSE > 24, had a combination of decreasing visuospatial ability and episodic memory during preceding years, expressed by widespread rCBF changes in fronto-subcortical areas.

The effect of free school fruit on academic performance: a nationwide quasi-experiment

In past research, higher intake of fruit has been associated with better academic achievement. In Norway, the government required lower secondary schools to provide fruit to their pupils from 2007 to 2014. The present study assessed whether this policy improved academic performance. In addition to secondary schools, the policy covered schools with combined elementary and lower secondary education, but not ordinary elementary schools. This differentiation, in combination with administrative data on test scores before, during, and after the law was enforced, created a nationwide quasi-experiment. Population register data on parents’ sociodemographic characteristics allowed for targeted analyses on a subsample of boys with low sociodemographic status. In analyses of 5th grade tests, the free fruit policy coincided with a slight decline in test scores among eligible compared to non-eligible pupils in the subsample (B = − 0.18, 95%CI[− 0.35, − 0.01]) and entire population (B = − 0.14, 95%CI[− 0.24, − 0.05]). Exploratory analyses of exam data in 10th grade yielded similar results, and sensitivity tests either failed to detect any effect or demonstrated a negative tendency. In a Western country with low levels of food insecurity, a policy that required schools to provide free fruit to pupils did not appear to improve academic performance.

Timing of Cognitive Test Score Decline Prior to Incident Dementia Diagnosis in Blacks and Whites: The Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities Neurocognitive Study

Introduction: Commonly occurring dementias include those of Alzheimer’s, vascular, and mixtures of these and other pathologies. They are believed to evolve over many years, but that time interval has been difficult to establish. Our objective was to determine how many years in advance of a dementia diagnosis cognitive scores begin to change. Methods: 14,086 dementia-free ARIC participants underwent a cognitive exam at baseline visit 2 (1990–1992, mean age 57 ± 5.72), and 11,244 at visit 4 (1996–1998), 5,640 at visit 5 (2011–2013), and 3,574 at visit 6 (2016–2017) with surveillance for dementias of all-causes combined. Within 5-year intervals after each visit, we compared performance on the Delayed Word Recall Test (DWRT), the Digit Symbol Substitution Test (DSST), the Word Fluency Test (WFT), and the combined mean of three cognitive tests at baseline in participants who were diagnosed with dementia within each interval versus those who survived the interval without a dementia diagnosis. Z-scores were adjusted for demographics and education in separate regression models for each visit. We plotted adjusted z-score means by time interval following each visit. Results: During follow-up 3,334, 2,821, 1,218, and 329 dementia cases were ascertained after visits 2, 4, 5, and 6, respectively. Adjusted DWRT z-scores were significantly lower 20–25 years before dementia than those who did not experience dementia within 25 years. DSST z-scores were significantly lower at 25–30 years and 3-test combination z-scores were significantly lower as early as 30–31 years before onset. The difference between dementia and non-dementia group in the visit 2 3-test combination z-score was −0.20 at 30–31 years prior to dementia diagnosis. As expected, differences between the dementia and non-dementia groups increased closer to the time of dementia occurrence, up to their widest point at 0–5 years prior to dementia diagnosis. The difference between dementia and non-dementia groups in the visit 2 3-test combination z-score at 0–5 years was −0.90. WFT z-score differences were smaller than for the DSST or DWRT and began later. Patterns were similar in Black and White participants. Conclusion: DWRT, DSST, and combined 3-test z-scores were significantly lower more than 20 years prior to diagnosis in the dementia group versus the non-dementia group. Findings contribute to our knowledge of the long prodromal period in Blacks and Whites.

Effect of APOE and a polygenic risk score on incident dementia and cognitive decline in a healthy older population.

Few studies have measured the effect of genetic factors on dementia and cognitive decline in healthy older individuals followed prospectively. We studied cumulative incidence of dementia and cognitive decline, stratified by APOE genotypes and polygenic risk score (PRS) tertiles, in 12,978 participants of the ASPirin in Reducing Events in the Elderly (ASPREE) trial. At enrolment, participants had no history of diagnosed dementia, cardiovascular disease, physical disability or cognitive impairment. Dementia (adjudicated trial endpoint) and cognitive decline, defined as a >1.5 standard deviation decline in test score for either global cognition, episodic memory, language/executive function or psychomotor speed, versus baseline scores. Cumulative incidence for all‐cause dementia and cognitive decline was calculated with mortality as a competing event, stratified by APOE genotypes and tertiles of a PRS based on 23 common non‐APOE variants. During a median 4.5 years of follow‐up, 324 participants developed dementia, 503 died. Cumulative incidence of dementia to age 85 years was 7.4% in all participants, 12.6% in APOE ε3/ε4 and 26.6% in ε4/ε4. APOE ε4 heterozygosity/homozygosity was associated with a 2.5/6.3‐fold increased dementia risk and 1.4/1.8‐fold cognitive decline risk, versus ε3/ε3 (p < 0.001 for both). High PRS tertile was associated with a 1.4‐fold dementia risk versus low (CI 1.04–1.76, p = 0.02), but was not associated with cognitive decline (CI 0.96–1.22, p = 0.18). Incidence of dementia among healthy older individuals is low across all genotypes; however, APOE ε4 and high PRS increase relative risk. APOE ε4 is associated with cognitive decline, but PRS is not.

Sickle cell trait and risk of cognitive impairment in African-Americans: The REGARDS cohort

BackgroundSickle cell anemia may be associated with cognitive dysfunction, and some complications of sickle cell anemia might affect those with sickle cell trait (SCT), so we hypothesized that SCT is a risk factor for cognitive impairment. MethodsThe Reasons for Geographic and Racial Differences in Stroke (REGARDS) study enrolled a national cohort of 30,239 white and black Americans from 2003 to 7, who are followed every 6 months. Baseline and annual global cognitive function testing used the Six-Item Screener (SIS), a validated instrument (scores range 0–6; ≤4 indicates cognitive impairment). Participants with baseline cognitive impairment and whites were excluded. Logistic regression was used to calculate the association of SCT with incident cognitive impairment, adjusted for risk factors. Linear mixed models assessed multivariable-adjusted change in test scores on a biennially administered 3-test battery measuring learning, memory, and semantic and phonemic fluency. FindingsAmong 7743 participants followed for a median of 7·1 years, 85 of 583 participants with SCT (14·6%) developed incident cognitive impairment compared to 902 of 7160 (12·6%) without SCT. In univariate analysis, the odds ratio (OR) of incident cognitive impairment was 1·18 (95% CI: 0·93, 1·51) for those with SCT vs. those without. Adjustment did not impact the OR. There was no difference in change on 3-test battery scores by SCT status (all p > 0·11). InterpretationIn this prospective cohort study of black Americans, SCT was not associated with incident cognitive impairment or decline in test scores of learning, memory and executive function. FundingNational Institutes of Health, American Society of Hematology.

The Local Effects of the Texas Shale Boom on Schools, Students, and Teachers

This study explores how the Texas shale boom affected schools, students, and teachers. Using variation in geology across school districts and oil prices over time, the evidence shows that test scores in the average shale district declined despite tripling the tax base and creating a revenue windfall. Greater spending went to capital projects and servicing debt, not to teachers. Higher labor market wages did not affect student completion rates, but a growing gap in wages between the private and education sectors contributed to greater teacher turnover and more inexperienced teachers, which helps explain the decline in test scores.

Tracking Cognitive Decline in Amnestic Mild Cognitive Impairment and Early-Stage Alzheimer Dementia: Mini-Mental State Examination versus Neuropsychological Battery

Background/Aims: Although the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE), Clinical Dementia Rating-Sum of Boxes (CDR-SOB), and neuropsychological batteries are widely used for evaluating cognitive function, it remains elusive which instrument best reflects the longitudinal disease progression in amnestic mild cognitive impairment (aMCI) and probable Alzheimer disease (AD). We investigated whether changes in these three instruments over time correlate with loss of cortical gray matter volume (cGMV). Methods: We retrospectively investigated 204 patients (aMCI, n = 114; AD, n = 90) who had undergone MMSE, CDR-SOB, the dementia version of the Seoul Neuropsychological Screening Battery (SNSB-D), and 3-dimensional T1-weighted magnetic resonance images at least twice. We investigated the partial correlation between annual decline in test scores and percent change of cGMV. Results: In aMCI patients, changes in the SNSB-D total score (r = 0.340, p < 0.001) and CDR-SOB (r = 0.222, p = 0.020), but not MMSE, showed a correlation with cGMV loss, with the SNSB-D total score showing the strongest correlation. In AD patients, decline in all three test scores correlated significantly with cGMV loss, with MMSE exhibiting the strongest correlation (r = 0.464, p < 0.001). Conclusion: In aMCI patients, neuropsychological battery, though time-consuming, was the most adequate tool in tracking disease progression. In AD patients, however, MMSE may be the most effective longitudinal monitoring tool when considering cost-effectiveness.

Child Labor and Learning

This article investigates the impact of working while in school on learning outcomes through the use of a unique micropanel data set of the standardized test scores of Brazilian students. The potential endogeneity of school performance and child work is addressed through the use of fixed-effects estimators. A negative effect of working on learning outcomes in both math and Portuguese is found. The effects of child work range from 5% to 13% of a standard deviation decline in test score, which represents a loss of about one-quarter to three-fifths of an average year of learning. Robustness checks confirm the main conclusions.

Cerebral Vasoreactivity, Apolipoprotein E, and the Risk of Dementia: A Population-Based Study.

Cerebral vasoreactivity (CVR) is a key factor in maintenance of continuous cerebral perfusion and a marker of (micro)vascular damage. We aimed to determine the longitudinal relation between CVR and the risk of dementia in the general population. We determined CVR in nondemented participants who underwent transcranial Doppler with induced hypercapnia from 1997 to 1999, as part of the ongoing population-based Rotterdam Study. We used a Cox model to determine the risk of dementia in relation to CVR, adjusted for age, sex, cardiovascular risk factors, and carotid intima-media thickness. We furthermore determined decline on a cognitive test battery in relation to CVR, using linear mixed models. Among 1629 participants (mean ± SD age 70.6 ± 6.2 years, 46.2% female) with a mean follow-up of 11.5 years, 209 were diagnosed with dementia, of whom 171 had Alzheimer disease. Higher CVR at baseline was associated with lower risk of dementia (adjusted hazard ratio, 95% confidence interval, per SD increase: 0.87, 0.75-1.00) and Alzheimer disease (adjusted hazard ratio, 0.84; 0.71-0.99). This association was more profound in APOEε4 carriers than in noncarriers (adjusted hazard ratio for all dementia: 0.77, 0.60-0.98 versus 0.89, 0.73-1.07). Performance on cognitive tests at baseline was better with higher CVR (g-factor: P=0.02), but during 3 cognitive assessments over 11 years of follow-up, higher CVR at baseline was associated with less decline in test scores on the Stroop reading and interference tasks in APOEε4 carriers only (P=0.01 and 0.02, respectively). Impaired CVR is associated with an increased risk of dementia in the general population.

Time of day and caffeine influence some neuropsychological tests in the elderly.

We report that performance on neuropsychological tests used in the diagnosis of dementia can be influenced by external factors such as time of day (TOD) and caffeine. This study investigates TOD effects on cognitive performance in the elderly. The optimal TOD at which an individual is at his or her maximal arousal alters with age, and in the elderly, typically occurs in the morning. Neuropsychological test scores from healthy elderly participants were analyzed to determine whether TOD affected performance. Interactions between caffeine and TOD were also investigated. Across 2 data sets that were analyzed, significant TOD effects were noted for Pattern-Comparison Speed (PCS), Letter-Comparison Speed (LCS; Salthouse & Babcock, 1991), Trail Making Test Part A (Reitan, 1958), Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE; Folstein, Folstein, & McHugh, 1975) and the Graded Naming Test (GNT; McKenna & Warrington, 1980), revealing a decline in test scores as TOD increases. Significant interactions between TOD, age, and the PCS, LCS, and Trail Making Part A were noted in Data Set 1. In Data Set 2, caffeine intake had been controlled for, and significant interactions between caffeine, TOD, and scores on the MMSE and GNT were found. The TOD and caffeine effects highlight the need to control for these external factors when scoring the assessments. This conclusion has implications for the clinical procedure of diagnosis and treatment of dementia and Alzheimer's.

Reading Achievement of English Learners Who Participated in the Response to Intervention Model

The purpose of this study was to determine if English Learners (ELs) reading achievement scores could be related to the group’s participation in Response to Intervention (RTI). RTI addresses the challenges many public schools face as they seek the best methods for teaching reading and language while facing a nationally significant growth in the population of ELs students. This quantitative study utilized a repeated-measures design with English proficiency as the one between-groups factor and California Standardized Test (CST) as the one repeated-measures factor with two levels. The data were gathered from CSTs for the 2009-2010 and 2010-2011 school years. Each research question was answered with descriptive statistics gathered from a general linear model ANOVA to determine if there was a statistically significant relationship between participation in RTI and ELs reading achievement scores. As a result of the data analyzed for this study, students who are ELs and also participants in the RTI model demonstrated a relationship between their participation in RTI and reading achievement. To support effective implementation practices for RTI, school administrators can use the descriptive data found in this study to consider possible RTI implementation options. The results of this study indicated that RTI was a beneficial practice for ELs. Further study is needed to address the decline in test scores for both ELs and English Only (EO) students in grade 3. District administrators can use the results of the study to address curricular needs for ELs during the first year of schooling between the scaffolded grade 2 administration of the CST and the independently read grade 3 administration of the CST. The results of this study are significant for ELs and the schools that serve them. Schools similar to those that participated in this study can glean important information about RTI implementation and the effect it has on ELs and their reading achievement. Administrators and school leaders can consider the data presented in this study and the interpretation of the results and construct a similar RTI model or begin implementation of an RTI model that will ultimately be beneficial to the EL population in schools.

Child Labor and Learning

This paper uses a unique micro panel dataset of Brazilian students to investigate the impact of working while in school on learning outcomes. The potential endogeneity is addressed through the use of difference-in-difference and instrumental variable estimators. A negative effect of working on learning outcomes in math and Portuguese is found. The effects of child work range from 3 to 8 percent of a standard deviation decline in test score, which represents a loss of about a quarter to a half of a year of learning on average.

Moderate alcohol consumption and cognitive risk

We reviewed 143 papers that described the relationship between moderate drinking of alcohol and some aspect of cognition. Two types of papers were found: (1) those that provided ratios of risk between drinkers and nondrinkers (74 papers in total) and (2) those that, although they did not provide such ratios, allowed cognition in drinkers to be rated as “better,” “no different,” or “worse” than cognition in nondrinkers (69 papers in total). The history of research on moderate drinking and cognition can be divided into two eras: 1977–1997 and 1998–present. Phase I (1977–1997) was the era of neuropsychological evaluation involving mostly young to middle-aged (18–50 years old) subjects. Although initial studies indicated moderate drinking impaired cognition, many later studies failed to confirm this, instead finding no difference in cognition between drinkers and nondrinkers. Phase II (1998–present) was and is the era of mental status exam evaluation involving mostly older (≥55 years old) subjects. These studies overwhelmingly found that moderate drinking either reduced or had no effect on the risk of dementia or cognitive impairment. When all the ratios of risk from all the studies in phase II providing such ratios are entered into a comprehensive meta-analysis, the average ratio of risk for cognitive risk (dementia or cognitive impairment/decline) associated with moderate “social” (not alcoholic) drinking of alcohol is 0.77, with nondrinkers as the reference group. The benefit of moderate drinking applied to all forms of dementia (dementia unspecified, Alzheimer’s disease, and vascular dementia) and to cognitive impairment (low test scores), but no significant benefit against cognitive decline (rate of decline in test scores) was found. Both light and moderate drinking provided a similar benefit, but heavy drinking was associated with nonsignificantly higher cognitive risk for dementia and cognitive impairment. Although the meta-analysis also indicated that wine was better than beer or spirits, this was based on a relatively small number of studies because most studies did not distinguish among these different types of alcohol. Furthermore, a number of the studies that did make the distinction reported no difference among the effects of these different types of alcohol. Therefore, at present this question remains unanswered. Analysis also showed that the presence of the apolipoprotein E epsilon 4 allele eliminated the benefit of moderate drinking. However, this was based on a relatively small number of studies and several other studies have found a beneficial effect of the epsilon e4 allele. Further studies are necessary to settle this question. The benefit of moderate alcohol for cognition was seen in both men and women, although the amount and pattern of drinking is very different between the two sexes. Lastly, the finding of unaffected or significantly reduced cognitive risk in light to moderate drinkers was seen in 14/19 countries for which country-specific ratio data were available, with three of the five remaining countries showing nonsignificant reductions as well. Overall, light to moderate drinking does not appear to impair cognition in younger subjects and actually seems to reduce the risk of dementia and cognitive decline in older subjects.

School Board Member and Superintendent Turnover and the Influence on Student Achievement: An Application of the Dissatisfaction Theory

District-level leadership often has been perceived as irrelevant to educational reform. This study compared district political and apolitical board and superintendent turnover to student performance change on the state criterion-referenced test. Results included student test score decline as board turnover increased, particularly in smaller districts and when delineating politically motivated board turnover. Also, student test scores declined in small, rural districts where there was no superintendent change over the course of the eight-year study. Conclusions included support for the dissatisfaction theory, which predicts that politically motivated board and superintendent turnover may influence student performance.

Learning outcomes and behavioral changes with a pharmacy continuing professional education program.

To examine the results of an interactive curricular-based 3-month long pharmacy continuing professional education (CPE) program on short- and long-term learning outcomes and behavioral changes of current and potential preceptors. A CPE program was developed that covered specific disease states and teaching skills. The goals of the course were to provide knowledge and skills needed to precept the College's new advanced rotations, and to attract more pharmacists to serve as preceptors. The course included pre-readings and 3-hour long workshops over a 3-month period of time. Learning and behavior were assessed by a pretest and posttest and follow-up survey. Ninety-nine pharmacists completed the course. Fifty participants completed the assessments and were included in the analysis, yielding a usable response rate of 52%. However, only 30 participants completed the follow-up survey instrument, resulting in a response rate of 30%. There was a significant increase in test scores between the pretest and posttest, but a significant decline in test scores between posttest and the follow-up survey. An interactive, curricular-based pharmacy CPE program is effective in increasing learning, but participants may not maintain the acquired knowledge over time. The program was not an effective mechanism to attract pharmacists to serve as preceptors.

Reliable change scores and their relation to perceived change in memory: Implications for the diagnosis of mild cognitive impairment

The relation between the subjective report of memory problems and objective evidence of the same has been debated with mixed results appearing in the literature. Less is known about the relation between objective change in test performance and the perceptions of cognitive change from family members/friends and trained clinicians. These relations were explored using 5-year longitudinal data from the population-based Canadian Study of Health and Aging. Statistically reliable deterioration in memory test performance was determined using a standardized regression-based (SRB) approach and a Reliable Change Index (RCI) that accounts for aging and practice effects. Among a subsample of persons with no cognitive impairment (NCI) at baseline, there was a moderate relation between reliable test score decline and ratings made by clinicians and informants. No relation, however, was found with the subjective reports of memory difficulties. These findings hold implications for current mild cognitive impairment (MCI) criteria which include subjective, informant and/or clinician ratings of cognitive decline.

Age differences within secular IQ trends: An individual growth modeling approach

Age differences within the yo-yo trend in IQ, caused when aging norms that produce inflated scores are replaced with new norms, were examined using longitudinal WISC, WISC-R and WISC-III records of students tested for special education services from 10 school districts. Descriptive and individual growth modeling analyses revealed that while the secular pattern in IQ has not changed over time, the role of age within this pattern has. Specifically, the decline in test scores that occurs when new norms replace older ones was smaller for older children in earlier testings. These differences, however, disappeared in more current testings. The results reveal that the relationship between IQ and age is complex and, further, shows the benefits of using individual growth modeling to uncover patterns within longitudinal data that would otherwise be obscured with more traditional analytic techniques.