Decision Maker's Attitude Research Articles

Optimal shipping quantity, product pricing strategies and carbon emissions of online retailers under a new logistics mode

A new logistics mode has emerged in online retailing, which ships products before customers place orders online to reduce the waiting time for customers to receive them. The existing research on this logistics mode mainly focuses on the shipping quantity (i.e., the quantity of products to be shipped in advance from the order fulfillment center to the distribution center nearby customers before the order is placed online), while the product pricing problem and carbon emissions have not been studied comprehensively. Moreover, the risk attitudes of decision-makers have been ignored in the studies related to this new logistics mode. This paper builds an extended newsvendor model to explore the optimal joint decision problem of shipping quantity and product pricing under this new logistics mode and analyzes the carbon emissions of this new logistics mode compared with the traditional logistics mode. We consider decision-makers to be risk averse and take Conditional Value-at-Risk (CVaR) as the risk measure criterion. For both multiplicative and additive demand models, we obtain the closed-form solution of the optimal strategy. The differences between the optimal strategies of risk-averse and risk-neutral decision-makers and between the optimal strategies of this logistics mode and the traditional one have also been explored. Based on the optimal shipping quantity and product pricing strategies, we analyze the carbon emission variation of this logistics mode compared with the traditional one and provide sufficient conditions for reducing carbon emissions. Numerical experiments verify the theoretical conclusions and analyze the effect of some parameters on the optimal strategy, profit and carbon emission variation. The results show that online retailers should reduce product price in this new logistics mode compared with the traditional one. The risk-aversion degree slightly affects the optimal price but significantly affects the shipping quantity. Moreover, implementing this new logistics mode contributes to reducing carbon emissions compared with the traditional logistics mode in most cases. This study helps support online retailers in developing shipping quantity and product pricing strategies under this new logistics mode and helps the Environmental Protection Association to understand the carbon emissions under this new logistics mode so that relevant strategies can be developed.

A Hesitant Fuzzy Method for Evaluating Risky Cold Chain Suppliers Based on an Improved TODIM

Enterprises need sustainable development in order to reduce costs and increase income. The cold chain logistics industry needs to promote sustainable supply chains more. As the beginning of the supply chain, the choice of suppliers is particularly important. Considering the risky attitude of decision-makers, an improved hesitant fuzzy TODIM approach is adopted to select suppliers. In order to calculate a more objective indicator weight, the generalized Shapley function of the hesitant fuzzy measure is adopted by analyzing the relationships among indicators. The uncertain supplier evaluation information given by decision-makers is obtained by using hesitant fuzzy information. The improved Interactive and Multi-criteria Decision-Making (TODIM) method based on hesitant fuzzy numbers is used to analyze the psychological behavior of decision-makers under different market prospects and comprehensively rank the candidate suppliers. Finally, a case study of selecting cold chain logistics suppliers is provided to verify the effectiveness and feasibility of the method in this paper.

A three-way decision approach with S-shaped utility function under Pythagorean fuzzy information

Three-way decision, as opposed to conventional two-way decision-making, can more effectively reduce decision-making risks by adding a postponed decision-making. With respect to the three-way decision problem consisting of Pythagorean fuzzy information, considering the risk attitudes of decision makers(DMs), we exploit Pythagorean fuzzy sets (PFNs), S-shaped utility and three-way decision to establish a new Pythagorean three-way decision model. The model realizes the effective integration of Pythagorean fuzzy theory and three-way decision, and enriches three-way decision based on risk preference. Firstly, we define a new PFN score function and construct a new condition probability by using Pythagorean fuzzy similarity, which not only reflects the difference in distance but conforms to human cognitive habits. Subsequently, considering the impact of the changes in risk preferences on the measurement of decision risks, we define an action utility function and construct the risk measurement matrix function based on S-shaped utility function, calculate the thresholds by employing optimization formulation. According to key steps and algorithms, the Pythagorean fuzzy-three-way decision rules based on S-shaped utility function can be obtained. Finally, we utilize an example of selecting film projects to validate the interpretability and applicability of our proposed model.

Incorporating the status quo effect into the decision making process: The case of municipal companies merger

Decision-making for cooperation between municipal entities involves elected members serving public interest who argue in both quantitative (e.g. financial performance), and qualitative (e.g. social acceptance) grounds. Policy support should consider conflicting objectives in a context of uncertainty and imprecision as well as in presence of organizational lock-ins that tend to favor incumbent arrangements. In search of appropriate algorithm to support decision making in such cases we opted for the PROMETHEE outranking method integrating novel findings of behavioral theory. Thus its preference functions are specified so that they reflect bounded rationality that shapes risk attitudes of decision makers within the uncertain environment of public management. Moreover alternative weighting procedures have been applied for group decisions. The prospect theory multi-criteria methodology, termed PT-PROMETHEE is implemented relating proposed options to observed behavior providing useful insights especially regarding status quo options also allowing for sensitivity analysis. Thus acceptance of MCDM support by the stakeholders is enhanced leading to solid compromise institutional arrangements.

AFFORDABLE INNOVATION REJECTION ATTITUDES: CONCEPTUALISATION, SCALE DEVELOPMENT, AND VALIDATION

Affordable innovations, which serve consumers with a low willingness or ability to pay, are a means to address grand challenges while also generating economic value. However, less is known about how managers’ and decision makers’ individual-level preferences and attitudes for or against affordable innovation hinder their development. Hence, in addition to identifying and conceptualising the affordable innovation rejection (AIR) attitudes of decision makers as a major obstacle, this study proposes a scale to measure them. Specifically, with a series of qualitative and quantitative studies, this research develops and validates a parsimonious psychometric scale that can measure decision makers’ AIR attitudes. The resulting six-item scale is based on a tripartite AIR conceptualisation, which proves valid in terms of convergent, discriminant, experimental, nomological, predictive, and test–retest reliability. The proposed research agenda in turn details some possible applications of this scale.

How does decision-making change during challenging times?

Prospect Theory, proposed and developed by Kahneman and Tversky, demonstrated that people do not make rational decisions based on expected utility, but are instead biased by specific cognitive tendencies leading to neglect, under- or over- consider information, depending on the context of presentation. In this vein, the present paper focuses on whether and how individual decision-making attitudes are prone to change in the presence of globally challenging events. We ran three partial replications of the Kahneman and Tversky (1979) paper, focusing on a set of eight prospects, after a terror attack (Paris, November 2015, 134 subjects) and during the Covid-19 pandemic, both during the first lockdown in Italy (Spring 2020, 176 subjects) and after the first reopening (140 subjects). The results confirm patterns of choice characterizing uncertain times, as shown by previous literature. In particular, we note significant increase of risk aversion, both in the gain and in the loss domains, that consistently emerged in the three replications. Given the nature of our sample, and the heterogeneity between the three periods investigated, we suggest that the phenomenon we present can be explained stress-related effects on decision making rather than by other economic effects, such as the income effect.

Empowerment resources, decision-making and gender attitudes: which matter most to livestock keepers in the mixed and livestock-based systems in Ethiopia?

BackgroundWomen's empowerment constitutes an important aspect of the development agenda. Although it is highly contextual in nature, empowerment literature so far has focussed on identifying factors associated with empowerment, neglecting the importance of understanding which empowerment resources and agency dimensions are more important for whom and under what contexts. This is important, because we cannot talk of empowerment for those who are not in a disempowered condition or who do not value it. We examine the gender differences in the relative valuations of empowerment resources and decision-making areas across different farming systems, and examine the most valued empowerment resources.MethodsUsing a mixed methods approach, data on major household decisions, empowerment resources, and their relative importance were collected. Pairwise ranking methods were used to assess their gendered relative importance. Individual interviews using Ryff’s psychological well-being (PWB) items were conducted to obtain quantitative data on the key empowerment resource, which emerged as an important aspect of empowerment from the pairwise ranking exercises. Drawing on the empowerment framework and self-determination theory, we analysed the data.ResultsOur results show that the major empowerment resources and decision-makings that are valuable to men and women vary across gender and farming systems. In general, men place a greater importance on decisions about livestock, crop and finances. The women valued decisions regarding crop, livestock and social relations. Regarding empowerment resources, psychological well-being was found to be one of the most important resources, for women as well as men. Assessment of the basic psychological needs―autonomy, self-acceptance, and positive relations―statistically yielded no significant differences between the gender groups. However, the effects of location and the intersection of location with gender were both found to be statistically significant, suggesting that being men and from Horo is associated with higher scores on self-acceptance and personal relation subscales.ConclusionsWe conclude that gender and location play important roles in forming contextual conditions for empowerment and agency implying that empowerment efforts need to consider both. More specifically, policies and intervention efforts to empower individuals or groups must begin by first building their psychological assets and consider contextual gendered perceptions of resources.

Individual-level exit choice behaviour under uncertain risk

Understanding human decision making during emergency evacuations is important. It is because decision making is crucial at each stage of the evacuation (e.g. route choice, exit choice, path finding, etc.). Previous studies have examined the influence of social interaction and environmental factors on exit choice. However, researches on the decision-making behaviour and risk attitude towards such selection at the individual level is still limited. To fill this knowledge gap, we designed a series of virtual evacuation scenarios to examine the exit choice behaviour and decision-making attitude in uncertainty risk scenarios in different smoke conditions. Data collection was implemented by an online stated preference survey. The results revealed a systematic and pattern preference in exit choice regardless of the decisions made by experienced evacuees. The weighted uncertainty risk for individuals was determined by considering the smoke height and smoke appearance frequency. The weighting function between the subjective and objective entities exhibited an S shape. In addition, the function was estimated using an empirical equation. A decision maker’s attitude towards uncertain risk in evacuation scenarios was observed to be a rank- and reference-dependent preference rather than being fully rational. The results of the experiments conducted in virtual environment well agreed with the cumulative prospect theory. This research demonstrates the feasibility of using virtual environment for evacuation experiment which can total avoid the risk of stampede while the individual decision-making behaviours can still be captured.

Qualitative capacities: Basic notions and potential applications

Qualitative capacities are set functions valued on a finite chain, increasing in the wide sense with respect to set inclusion. This paper exploits formal analogies between qualitative capacities and numerical capacities: we first recall qualitative counterparts to Möbius transforms, game-theoretic core, and conjugate set functions. However, in the qualitative setting, possibility measures play the same role as probability measures in the quantitative setting. Then possibility and necessity measures sometimes do not convey the same type of information. This situation creates difficulties to interpret qualitative capacities and related notions inspired from the quantitative setting. In particular, we propose three different ways of using qualitative capacities: either as bounds on ill-known possibility or necessity measures, or as tools to express the decision maker attitude in qualitative criteria under uncertainty, or yet qualitative counterparts of belief functions that handle both incompleteness and inconsistency of pieces of information stemming from several sources. In the latter framework possibility and necessity measures do not represent the same type of information. We define order relations between capacities with a view to compare them in terms of informational contents. We also study a counterpart of Dempster rule of combination in the qualitative setting. We compare several capacity combination rules in the framework of an information fusion problem. Finally, we address the problem of eliciting qualitative capacities based on human-originated information.

Dual-Source Procurement Strategy of Cross-Border E-Commerce Supply Chain considering Members’ Risk Attitude

The risk attitude of decision-makers will significantly affect the decision-making of enterprise risk management. Specifically, high risk represents the potential premise of high return for risk preference decision-makers, and for risk-averse decision-makers, the increase of risk degree will stimulate decision-makers’ aversion to uncertainty and turn to seek safer business strategies. Although there are many pieces of literature on the risk preference of decision-makers, they usually only assume the risk attitude of one party and rarely consider the risk attitude of suppliers and retailers in the scenario of cross-border e-commerce at the same time. Therefore, under the background of supply disruption, for the cross-border e-commerce supply chain composed of cross-border suppliers, overseas suppliers, overseas retailers, and consumers, combined with the risk attitude preference of enterprise subjects, this paper constructs the mean-variance model dominated by overseas retailers and reversely solves the risk-aversion attitude of a single cross-border supplier. When a single overseas retailer maintains a risk-aversion attitude and both cross-border suppliers and overseas retailers hold a risk-neutral or risk-aversion attitude, the pricing of products in different channels is analyzed. Finally, an example is given to analyze the impact of supply disruption probability, risk-aversion coefficient, channel distribution coefficient, and other parameters on purchase price, market demand, target profit, and utility. It is of great practical significance for improving the stability of cross-border e-commerce supply chain system and reducing revenue loss to study how different degrees of risk-aversion attitudes of cross-border suppliers and overseas retailers affect enterprise procurement pricing strategy, target profit, and utility in case of supply disruption.

Exploring the influence of critical parameters on green supply chain management performance of small and medium-sized enterprise: An integrated multivariate analysis-robust design approach

The implementation of green supply chain management (GSCM) practices is still in its rudimentary stage in small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) of emerging economies. So far, too little research has shown clear empirical evidence on the actual impact of various parameters on GSCM performance of SMEs. In order to fill this knowledge gap, this research attempts to identify the critical GSCM parameter and quantitively measure its influence on the GSCM performance of an India-based SME. To this end, twenty important GSCM parameters are identified from an extant literature and verified by the experts. Data is collected through questionnaire development, expert committee formation, and conducting interviews. This research employs an integrated multivariate analysis-robust design approach, in which item analysis is used to check the consistency of the data and principal component analysis (PCA) is used to determine the weights of the parameters. The Taguchi’s L9 orthogonal array analysis is used in which, qualitative data, quantitative data, and attitude of decision maker are taken as input parameters and a GSCM performance index is taken as a response parameter. The result reveals that, ‘Use of emission control system’ is the most critical GSCM parameter and the optimal combination of input parameters are: use of the emission control system (0.08); total carbon emission (0.37); attitude of decision maker (0.6), and the corresponding GSCM performance index is 0.196. The proposed framework may help decision makers identify and control a set of influential parameters for the best GSCM performance.

A novel LOPCOW‐DOBI multi‐criteria sustainability performance assessment methodology: An application in developing country banking sector

Banks do not directly contribute to sustainable development, yet they indirectly play an undeniable role. The sustainability of the banking sector, which is the heart of finance, is crucial both for this sector and economy as well as for the realization of the 2030 sustainable development goals. Despite the growing interest of practitioners and scholars on this issue, previous works are rare for developing countries. With a novel multi-criteria framework developed, therefore, this paper assesses banks in terms of sustainability and clarifies their levels of corporate sustainability performances. For the first time, this work introduces an objective weighting method named LOgarithmic Percentage Change-driven Objective Weighting (LOPCOW) with the advantages of eliminating the gap due to the size of the data, generating more reasonable weightings, and considering both positive and negative data in the weighting process. Further, a new multi-criteria method named DOmbi Bonferroni (DOBI) is developed and utilized for deciding the ranking of the alternatives. The technique provides flexible decision-making, considering the risk attitude of decision-makers. The applicability of the proposed framework is demonstrated by a case study of Turkish banks. Banks are analyzed regarding the three pillars of sustainability and their seventeen drivers. The environmental pillar indicates the top significant impact on banks' sustainability. The “average return on shareholders' equity”, “electricity consumption”, “number of branches,” and “number of staff” are the top four key drivers for banks' sustainability. As a result of ranking the nine banks that release sustainability reports in Turkey concerning their sustainability performances, it is highlighted that Garanti BBVA outperforms the others. With a comprehensive sensitivity check, the robustness and applicability of the model are further tested. The developed decision support tool could allow different organizations to conduct sustainability assessments under the main pillars and help monitor their improvement over time. Some political and managerial implications are as well mentioned.

Attitudes of national decision-makers towards differentiated integration in the European Union

Differentiated integration (DI) in the European Union (EU) has mainly been understood as variation in participation in common policies. But DI also has implications for the nature and functioning of the EU as a polity. While temporary DI may facilitate deeper integration, permanent DI is liable to increase transaction costs and fragmentation. However, little is known about how such alternatives are assessed by decision-makers in the member states. This article uses novel quantitative and qualitative data to shed light on this question. It looks at the explanatory role of various types of opt-outs and at member states’ dependence, capacity, and identity. We find that temporary and permanent differentiation are assessed differently in the member states but neither alternative is clearly preferred. Long-term involuntary opt-outs are related to negative assessments of both forms of DI. Surprisingly, voluntary opt-outs do not seem to lead to more positive assessments of DI. We also find that the temporary DI is preferred in smaller member states, while support for permanent DI is higher in larger member states. Finally, we find differences in the effects of dependency, capacity, and identity between older and newer member states.

Conjunctive Water Management under Multiple Uncertainties: A Case Study of the Amu Darya River Basin, Central Asia

With population growth, climate volatility, and economic expansion, the conjunctive management of surface–groundwater (SGW) faces great challenges. In this study, a hybrid factorial optimization programming (HFOP) method is developed through integrating factorial analysis, interval linear programming, flexible fuzzy programming, and two-stage stochastic programming into a general framework. HFOP can effectively reflect the multiple uncertainties and quantitatively identify the effects of multiple factors. Then, a HFOP-SGW model is formulated for the middle reaches of the Amu Darya River Basin, where 125 scenarios are analyzed. Some of the major findings are: (i) the improvement of surface-water transport efficiency and the proper use of groundwater can effectively alleviate regional water shortage; (ii) agricultural users have a high risk of water scarcity for all states, especially under a low-flow level; (iii) uncertainties of water-flow levels and risk-reverse attitudes of decision makers have significant impacts on the system’s benefits and water-allocation scheme; and (iv) the surface-water-transmission loss rate and risk perceptions of decision makers are the main factors affecting the system’s benefit’s and water-allocation scheme. These findings can help decision makers obtain desired water-allocation strategies to respond to the variations in water availability.

An innovative optimization model for sustainable hazardous waste reverse logistics network considering co-processing in cement kilns technology

As the rapid growth in hazardous waste (HW) is threatening both the environment and public health, more efficient disposal methods are needed. This paper proposes an innovative HW reverse logistics network (RLN) considering advanced co-processing in cement kiln technology, establishing three disposal lines to reduce HW volumes, develop renewable products, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and conserve resources. To optimise the HW disposal process, a multi-objective optimisation model comprehensively considering social, economic, and environmental dimensions is proposed. Then a numerical example is used to demonstrated the validity of the proposed model and a real-world case is conducted to demonstrate the practicality and efficiency of the proposed model in determining the most suitable hazardous waste disposal facilities, transportation routes and transportation quantities. Scenario analyses under different decision-maker attitudes towards the objectives are conducted while also considering the influence of governmental disposal subsidies. Finally, practical policy suggestions are provided to guide scientific and sustainable HW disposal. This study concludes that 1) different decision maker and disposal subsidy levels affect the optimal system decisions, 2) advanced co-processing in cement kiln technology increases the effectiveness of the HW-RLN in terms of economic and environmental perspectives, and 3) policy subsidy support could encourage the application of co-processing in cement kiln technology; a unit disposal subsidy of 160 CNY is considered suitable for “technologically pessimistic” decision-makers, while 200–220 CNY is considered suitable for “technologically optimistic” decision-makers.

A Dempster-Shafer-theory-based entry screening mechanism for small and medium-sized enterprises under uncertainty

The evaluation of star-up small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) is an important part of ensuring the success of development, but it is not an easy task because of the multiple criteria to be considered and uncertainties caused by incomplete decision information, limited individual perceptions and differences in perceptions of experts. By integrating Dempster-Shafer theory into a probabilistic linguistic setting that takes into account the uncertainties in the evaluation process by combining linguistic terms with subjective probabilities, this study proposes a multi-criteria decision-making model for the management of SMEs. We incorporate different decision factors regarding (a) the risk attitude of decision makers, (b) the relative importance of criteria, (c) the unreliability and incompleteness of evaluation on alternatives in one preference model of multi-criteria decision making. The applicability of the proposed preference model is validated by a case study of the entry screening of SMEs for business incubators. Through comparative analysis and sensitive analysis, the reliability of the proposed model is verified, which can not only express uncertain evaluation information, but also avoid information loss and defuzzification in the aggregation process.

A PROBABILISTIC LINGUISTIC VIKOR METHOD TO SOLVE MCDM PROBLEMS WITH INCONSISTENT CRITERIA FOR DIFFERENT ALTERNATIVES

VIKOR is a well-defined multiple criteria decision-making (MCDM) method since it reflects different risk attitudes of decision-makers by measuring the overall performance of an alternative under all criteria as “group value” and the worst performance of the alternative under all criteria as “individual regret”, but it cannot deal with MCDM problems where the criteria of different alternatives are inconsistent (different) and the decision information is uncertain. To address these problems, we present a probabilistic linguistic VIKOR method by combining with probabilistic linguistic term sets which portrays uncertain information such as individual hesitancy and incomplete belief flexibly. In addition, we introduce the aspired and tolerable values of criteria as reference points to measure the closeness degrees of alternatives to the ideal solution. To compare group values and individual regrets of different alternatives, we develop a vector normalization method that considers the number of criteria. The robustness of the aggregation results of group values and individual regrets is improved based on the extended Borda rule, which takes into account both values and ranks of alternatives in the aggregation. A case study of personnel evaluation demonstrates the effectiveness of the proposed method for solving MCDM problems with inconsistent criteria and uncertain decision information.

Public participation: healthcare rationing in the newspaper media

BackgroundIt is impossible to meet all healthcare demands, but an open and fair rationing process may improve the public acceptability of priority setting in healthcare. Decision-making is subject to scrutiny by newspaper media, an important public institution and information source for discussions about rationing. In Norway, healthcare rationing has been subject to public debate both before and after the establishment of “The National System for Managed Introduction of New Health Technologies within the Specialist Health Service” (New Methods) in 2013.AimTo describe and assess the development of the public debate on Norwegian healthcare rationing through three cases in print media.MethodsWe purposively sampled Norwegian newspaper articles between 2012 and 2018 concerning three reimbursement decisions in the Norwegian system. The reimbursement decisions were ipilimumab (Yervoy, n = 45) against metastatic melanoma, nivolumab (Opdivo, n = 23) against non-small cell lung cancer, and nusinersen (Spinraza, n = 68) against spinal muscular atrophy. Cases were analysed separately using the qualitative method of systematic text condensation.ResultsOur analysis highlighted four common themes—money, rationales, patient stories, and process—and a unique theme for each case. Ipilimumab was uniquely themed by rationing rejection, nivolumab by healthcare two-tiering, and Spinraza by patients’ rights. We found wide media deliberation among a multitude of stakeholders in all cases. Perceptions of rationing were found to be chiefly aligned with previous empirical research. We found that the media reported more frequently on opposition to rationing compared to findings from previous studies on Norwegian healthcare decision-making attitudes. We think this was influenced by our selection of cases receiving extraordinary media attention, and from media sources being subject to political communication from special interest groups.ConclusionWe observed that the introduction of New Methods institutionalised Norwegian healthcare rationing and isolated the public debate into conversations between stakeholders and decision makers outside the political sphere. The findings from these three extraordinary debates are not generalisable and should be seen as a stakeholder learning opportunity regarding media coverage and engagement with expensive specialist healthcare decision-making in Norway.

Three-way multi-criteria group decision-making method in a fuzzy [formula omitted]-covering group approximation space

At present, some researchers have studied the decision-making methods in a fuzzy β-covering approximation space, which not only can play the advantages of rough set theory in dealing with inaccurate data, but also inherit the ranking function of traditional decision-making methods. However, these methods merely consider the ranking problem in a single decision-maker environment and most of the decision-making problems in reality are group decision-making problems that need to consider multiple opinions. In light of this, in this paper, we propose the concept of fuzzy β-covering group approximation spaces and establish a three-way multi-criteria group decision-making method, which can solve some ranking and classification problems of objects under a group decision-making environment. Based on a fuzzy β-covering group approximation space, we firstly propose two fuzzy β-fitting neighborhoods with pessimistic and optimistic attitudes to construct a fuzzy binary relation between any two objects. Secondly, we introduce an overall loss function to estimate the risk loss of all objects when they choose different behaviors in different states under a group decision-making environment. Subsequently, based on the conditional probability estimation formula and the overall loss function, we propose a three-way group decision-making idea in a fuzzy β-covering group approximation space, which contains eight different decision-making attitudes to meet the preferences of decision-makers. Furthermore, for the ranking and classification performance of our method, we use numerical analysis, comparative analysis and Spearman analysis to illustrate the feasibility and superiority of the method, and take experimental analysis to test the stability of our method.

Assortative matching and commercial insurance participation: Evidence from the China Household Finance Survey

We investigated three assortative matching forms, positive assortative matching, women marrying up and men marrying up, and their effects on household commercial insurance participation, the number of family members with commercial insurance and household premium expenditures. Men marrying up has a significantly positive effect on the possibility of household commercial insurance participation and the number of family members having commercial insurance. The effect of men marrying up is larger in health insurance than in life insurance and annuity due to the salience of health risks. Finally, men marrying up interacts with the gender and risk attitude of the household financial decision-maker and may jointly affect household commercial insurance participation. Female decision-makers in marriages are more likely to purchase commercial insurance.