Debris Bed Formation Research Articles

Assessment of an X-ray analysis system for investigating of fibrous debris bed formation on PWR sump strainer modules

During the blow-down stage of a loss of coolant accident (LOCA), fibrous material and associated debris are transported from the location of the pipe break to the sump system as core coolant flows through containment. A series of strainer modules are installed to restrict large debris from entering the sump system, which supplies coolant to the Emergency Core Cooling System (ECCS). The accumulation of fibrous and debris material can result in the formation of semi-porous layers on the strainer module surfaces and possibly result in a reduction of coolant recirculation to the ECCS. The University of New Mexico (UNM) is investigating non-invasive techniques to better visualize the formation of fibrous debris beds on sump strainer modules; real-time visualization of debris bed formation would allow for better assessment of the filtration blockage of sump strainers. A series of exploratory tests were performed at the Center for Non-Destructive Evaluation (CNDE) at Iowa State University (ISU) to determine the viability of using an X-ray system to perform in situ measurements of debris bed formation and particulate filtration on small-scale representative sump pump strainer assemblies.

A two-dimensional experimental investigation on debris bed formation behavior

Studies on debris bed formation behavior are of crucial importance for the improved evaluation of Core Disruptive Accidents (CDA) that could occur for Sodium-cooled Fast Reactors (SFR). In this work, to clarify the mechanisms underlying this behavior, a series of experiments was performed by discharging solid particles into two-dimensional rectangular water pools. To obtain a comprehensive understanding, various experimental parameters, including particle size (0.256∼8 mm), particle density (glass, alumina, zirconia, steel and lead), particle shape (spherical and irregularly-shaped), water depth (0–60 cm), particle release pipe diameter (10–30 mm), particle release height (110–130 cm) as well as the gap thickness of water tank (30–60 mm), were varied. It is found that due to the different interaction mechanisms between solid particles and water pool, four kinds of regimes, termed respectively as the particle-suspension regime, the pool-convection dominant regime, the transitional regime and the particle-inertial dominant regime, are identified. The performed analyses in this work also suggest that under present experimental conditions, the particle size, particle density, particle shape, particle release pipe diameter and water depth are observable to have remarkable impact on the above regimes, while the role of particle release height and gap thickness of water tank seems to be less prominent. Knowledge and data from this work might be utilized for the improved design of core catcher as well as analyses and verifications of SFR severe accident analysis codes in China in the future.

Analysis of core degradation and relocation phenomena and scenarios in a Nordic-type BWR

Severe Accident Management (SAM) in Nordic Boiling Water Reactors (BWR) employs ex-vessel cooling of core melt debris. The melt is released from the failed vessel and poured into a deep pool of water located under the reactor. The melt is expected to fragment, quench, and form a debris bed, coolable by a natural circulation and evaporation of water. Success of the strategy is contingent upon melt release conditions from the vessel and melt-coolant interaction that determine (i) properties of the debris bed and its coolability (ii) potential for energetic melt-coolant interactions (steam explosions). Risk Oriented Accident Analysis Methodology (ROAAM+) framework is currently under development for quantification of the risks associated with formation of non-coolable debris bed and occurrence of steam explosions, both presenting a credible threats to containment integrity. The ROAAM+ framework consist of loosely coupled models that describe each stage of the accident progression. Core relocation analysis framework provides initial conditions for melt vessel interaction, vessel failure and melt release frameworks. The properties of relocated debris and melt release conditions, including in-vessel and ex-vessel pressure, lower drywell pool depth and temperature, are sensitive to the accident scenarios and timing of safety systems recovery and operator actions. This paper illustrates a methodological approach and relevant data for establishing a connection between core relocation and vessel failure analysis in ROAAM+ approach. MELCOR code is used for analysis of core degradation and relocation phenomena. Properties of relocated debris are obtained as functions of the accident scenario parameters. Pattern analysis is employed in order to characterize typical behavior of core relocation transients. Clustering analysis is employed for grouping of different accident scenarios, which result in similar core relocation behavior and properties of the debris.

On the influence of water subcooling and melt jet parameters on debris formation

Breakup of melt jet and formation of a porous debris bed at the base-mat of a flooded reactor cavity is expected during the late stages of a severe accident in light water reactors. Debris bed coolability is determined by the bed properties including particle size, morphology, bed height and shape as well as decay heat. Therefore understanding of the debris formation phenomena is important for assessment of debris bed coolability. A series of experiments was conducted in MISTEE-Jet facility by discharging binary-oxide mixtures of WO3–Bi2O3 and WO3–ZrO2 into water in order to investigate properties of resulting debris. The effect of water subcooling, nozzle diameter and melt superheat was addressed in the tests. Experimental results reveal significant influence of water subcooling and melt superheat on debris size and morphology. Significant differences in size and morphology of the debris at different melt release conditions is attributed to the competition between hydrodynamic fragmentation of liquid melt and thermal fracture of the solidifying melt droplets. The particle fracture rate increases with increased subcooling. Further the results are compared with the data from larger scale experiments to discern the effects of spatial scales. The present work provides data that can be useful for validation of the codes used for the prediction of debris formation phenomena.

Numerical simulation of debris bed formation in severe accident

Numerical simulation of debris bed formation in severe accident

Characteristics of debris in the lower head of a BWR in different severe accident scenarios

Nordic boiling water reactors (BWRs) adopt ex-vessel debris cooling to terminate severe accident progression. Core melt released from the vessel into a deep pool of water is expected to fragment and form a coolable debris bed. Characteristics of corium melt ejection from the vessel determine conditions for molten fuel–coolant interactions (FCI) and debris bed formation. Non-coolable debris bed or steam explosion can threaten containment integrity. Vessel failure and melt ejection mode are determined by the in-vessel accident progression. Characteristics (such as mass, composition, thermal properties, timing of relocation, and decay heat) of the debris bed formed in the process of core relocation into the vessel lower plenum define conditions for the debris reheating, remelting, melt-vessel structure interactions, vessel failure and melt release. Thus core degradation and relocation are important sources of uncertainty for the success of the ex-vessel accident mitigation strategy.The goal of this work is improve understanding how accident scenario parameters, such as timing of failure and recovery of different safety systems can affect characteristics of the debris in the lower plenum. Station blackout scenario with delayed power recovery in a Nordic BWR is considered using MELCOR code. The recovery timing and capacity of safety systems were varied using genetic algorithm (GA) and random sampling methods to identify two main groups of scenarios: with relatively small (<20tons) and large (>100tons) amount of relocated debris. The domains are separated by the transition regions, in which relatively small variations of the input can result in large changes in the final mass of debris. Typical ranges of the debris properties in different scenarios are discussed in detail.

The role of geometry changes and debris formation associated with wear on the temperature field in fretting contacts

The temperature of a fretting contact is known to be a key factor in its development. However, as a test proceeds, the wear scar changes, both geometrically and through the formation of oxide-based debris-beds. Accordingly, the effects of these on the near-surface temperature field resulting from frictional heating in fretting has been analysed via numerical modelling. Under the test conditions examined, it was predicted that (i) the development of the wear scar geometry would result in a significant (up to ~ 25%) reduction in the mean-surface temperature rise, and (ii) the formation of a typical oxide debris bed would result in a significant (up to ~ 80%) increase in the mean-surface temperature rise.

Experimental simulation of fragmentation and stratification of core debris on the core catcher of a fast breeder reactor

The complex and coupled phenomena of two simultaneous molten metal jets fragmenting inside a quiescent liquid pool and settling on a collector plate are experimentally analysed in the context of safety analysis of a fast breeder reactor (FBR) in the post accident heat removal phase. Following a hypothetical core melt down accident in a FBR, a major portion of molten nuclear fuel and clad/structural material which are collectively termed as ‘corium’ undergoes fragmentation in the bulk coolant sodium in the lower plenum of the reactor main vessel and settles on the core catcher plate. The coolability of this decay heat generating debris bed is dependent on the particle size distribution and its layering i.e., stratification.Experiments have been conducted with two immiscible molten metals of different densities poured inside a coolant medium to understand their fragmentation behaviour and to assess the possibility of formation of a stratified debris bed. Molten aluminium and lead have been used as simulants in place of molten stainless steel and nuclear fuel to facilitate easy handling. This paper summarizes the major findings from these experiments. The fragmentation of the two molten metals are explained in the light of relevant dimensionless numbers such as Reynolds number and Weber Number. The mass median diameter of the fragmented debris is predicted from nonlinear stability analysis of slender jets for lead jet and using Rayleigh's classical theory of jet breakup for aluminium jet. The agreement of the predicted values with the experimental results is good. These experiments indicate that complete segregation of the lighter component above the denser component does not happen. However, there is segregation observed in the radial direction to a certain extent in the case of rib-partitioned collector plate pointing to the significance of the geometry of the collector plate in settling and segregation aspects. It is observed that fragmentation phenomenon with its interplaying governing forces, interferes with the settling aspects and seems to suppress stratification that arises due to density differences between the molten melts. Moreover, the thermophysical properties of the metals play a crucial role in the fragmentation and settling behaviour as exemplified by the relevant dimensionless numbers.

Development of an ex-vessel corium debris bed with two-phase natural convection in a flooded cavity

During severe accidents of light water reactors (LWRs), the coolability of relocated corium from the reactor vessel is a significant safety issue and a threat to the integrity of containment. With a flooded cavity, a porous debris bed is expected to develop on the bottom of the pool due to breakup and fragmentation of the melt jet. As part of the coolability assessment under accident conditions, the geometrical configuration of the debris bed is important. The Debris Bed Research Apparatus for Validation of the Bubble-Induced Natural Convection Effect Issue (DAVINCI) experimental apparatus facility was constructed to investigate the formation of debris beds under the influence of a two-phase flow induced by steam generation due to the decay heat of the debris bed. Using this system, five kilograms of stainless steel simulant debris were injected from the top of the water level, while air bubbles simulating the vapor flow were injected from the bottom of the particle catcher plate. The airflow rate was determined based on the quantity of settled debris, which will form a heat source due to the decay of corium. The radial distribution of the settled debris was examined using a ‘gap–tooth’ approach. Based on the experimental results of this study, an analytical model was established to describe the spreading of the debris bed in terms of two-phase flow and the debris injection parameters. This model was then used to analyze the formation of debris beds at the reactor scale. A sensitivity analysis was carried out based on key accident parameters, including the quantity of corium melt, cavity flooding level, volumetric decay heat rate, and the size of the melt jet.

A new empirical model for self-leveling behavior of cylindrical particle beds

ABSTRACTDuring the material relocation phase of core disruptive accidents in sodium-cooled fast reactors, the rapid quenching and fragmentation of molten materials discharged from the reactor core into the lower plenum region can lead to the formation of debris beds. Coolant boiling may lead to leveling of the mound-shaped beds, which changes both the beds' coolability with decay heat in the fuel and the neutronic characteristics. In this study, a series of experiments using simulant materials were performed to develop an experimental database of self-leveling processes of particle beds in a cylindrical system. To simulate the coolant boiling in the beds in the experiments, a gas injection method was used to percolate nitrogen gas uniformly through the base of a bed with a conical-shaped mound. Time variations in bed height during the self-leveling process were measured for different particle sizes, densities and sphericities, and gas injection velocities. Using a dimensional analysis approach, a new model was proposed. This model correlates the experimental data on transient bed height with an empirical equation using a characteristic time for self-leveling development and an equilibrium bed height. The proposed model reasonably predicts the self-leveling development of particle beds.

Experimental investigation of particulate debris spreading in a pool

Termination of severe accident progression by core debris cooling in a deep pool of water under reactor vessel is considered in several designs of light water reactors. However, success of this accident mitigation strategy is contingent upon the effectiveness of heat removal by natural circulation from the debris bed. It is assumed that a porous bed will be formed in the pool in the process of core melt fragmentation and quenching. Debris bed coolability depends on its properties and system conditions. The properties of the bed, including its geometry are the outcomes of the debris bed formation process. Spreading of the debris particles in the pool by two-phase turbulent flows induced by the heat generated in the bed can affect the shape of the bed and thus influence its coolability.The goal of this work is to provide experimental data on spreading of solid particles in the pool by large-scale two-phase flow. The aim is to provide data necessary for understanding of separate effects and for development and validation of models and codes. Validated codes can be then used for prediction of debris bed formation under prototypic severe accident conditions. In PDS-P (Particulate Debris Spreading in the Pool) experiments, air injection at the bottom of the test section is employed as a means to create large-scale flow in the pool in isothermal conditions. The test section is a rectangular tank with a 2D slice geometry, it has fixed width (72mm), adjustable length (up to 1.5m) and allows water filling to the depth of up to 1m. Variable pool length and depth allows studying two-phase circulating flows of different characteristic sizes and patterns. The average void fraction in the pool is determined by video recording and subsequent image processing. Particles are supplied from the top of the facility above the water surface. Results of several series of PDS-P experiments are reported in this paper. The influence of the gas flow rate, pool dimensions, particle density and size on spreading of the particles is addressed. A preliminary scaling approach is proposed and shown to provide good agreement with the experimental findings.

Experimental investigation on single-phase pressure losses in nuclear debris beds: Identification of flow regimes and effective diameter

During a severe nuclear power plant accident, the degradation of the reactor core can lead to the formation of debris beds. The main accident management procedure consists in injecting water inside the reactor vessel. Nevertheless, large uncertainties remain regarding the coolability of such debris beds. Motivated by the reduction of these uncertainties, experiments have been conducted on the CALIDE facility in order to investigate single-phase pressure losses in representative debris beds. In this paper, these results are presented and analyzed in order to identify a simple single-phase flow pressure loss correlation for debris-bed-like particle beds in reflooding conditions, which cover Darcean to Weakly Turbulent flow regimes.The first part of this work is dedicated to study macro-scale pressure losses generated by debris-bed-like particle beds, i.e., high sphericity (>80%) particle beds with relatively small size dispersion (from 1mm to 10mm). A Darcy–Forchheimer law, involving the sum of a linear term and a quadratic deviation, with respect to filtration velocity, has been found to be relevant to describe this behavior in Darcy, Strong Inertial and Weak Turbulent regimes. It has also been observed that, in a restricted domain (Re=15 to Re=30) between Darcy and Weak Inertial regimes, deviation is better described by a cubic term, which corresponds to the so-called Weak Inertial regime.The second part of this work aims at identifying expressions for coefficients of linear and quadratic terms in Darcy–Forchheimer law, in order to obtain a predictive correlation. In the case of monodisperse beds, and according to the Ergun equation, they depend on the porosity of the medium, empirical constants and the diameter of the particles. Applicability of the Ergun equation for debris-bed-like particle beds has been investigated by assessing the possibility to evaluate equivalent diameters, i.e., characteristic length allowing correct predictions of linear and quadratic terms by the Ergun equation. It has been observed that the Sauter diameter of particles allows a very precise prediction of the linear term, by less than 10% in most cases, while the quadratic term can be predicted using the product of the Sauter diameter and a sphericity coefficient as an equivalent diameter, by about 15%.

Investigation of fragmentation phenomena and debris bed formation during core meltdown accident in SFR using simulated experiments

The event of a severe core melt down accident, resulting in the relocation of the active core is analyzed as a part of the nuclear reactor safety research in order to ensure safe removal of decay heat. Molten Fuel Coolant Interaction (MFCI) and debris bed configuration on the core catcher plate assumes importance in assessing the post accident heat removal capability. The key factors affecting the coolability of the debris bed are the bed porosity, morphology of the fragmented particles, degree of spreading/heaping of the debris on the core catcher and the fraction of lump formed. A well defined debris bed is helpful in fixing a prototypical source term for the PAHR studies. Towards this, a series of experiments on fragmentation kinetics and subsequent debris bed formation is conducted with molten Wood's metal (an alloy of Bi 50%, Pb 25%, Sn 12.5% and Cd 12.5% with melting point of 346K) in water simulant system. The experiments are carried out using 2kg, 5kg and 20kg melt inventories. The particle size distribution obtained for the fragmented debris is fit using an Upper Limit Log Normal (ULLN) distribution. The dependence of particle size distribution on initial melt temperature and interaction height is quantified by correlating them to the key parameters i.e. shape factor and location factor in the ULLN expression. Morphology of the debris particles is investigated to understand the fragmentation mechanisms involved. Three major mechanisms of fragmentation are identified namely melt entrainment mechanism, boundary layer stripping and hydrodynamic breakup due to capillary forces. Finally, an approach to quantify the stratification and spreading behaviour of debris on the collector tray is presented by analysing the particle size and mass percentage in different radial zones of the collector tray.

The challenge of modeling fuel–coolant interaction: Part I – Premixing

Fuel–coolant interaction is a complex mixing process that can occur during the course of a severe accident in a nuclear power plant involving core melting and relocation. Under certain circumstances, a steam explosion might develop during the mixing of the melt and the water and induce a loss of integrity of the containment. Even in the absence of an explosion, studying the mixing phenomenon is also of high interest due to its strong impact on the progression of the accident (debris bed formation, hydrogen production). This article is the first of two aiming at presenting both a status of research and understanding of fuel–coolant interaction and the main characteristics of the model developed in the 3-dimensional computer code MC3D. It is devoted to the premixing phase whereas the second is related to the explosion phase. A special attention is given to major difficulties, uncertainties and needs for further improvements in knowledge and modeling. We discuss more particularly the major phenomena that are melt fragmentation and film boiling heat transfer and the challenges related to modeling melt solidification and oxidation. Some highlights related to the code verification are finally given.

Analyses on ex-vessel debris formation and coolability in SARNET frame

The major aim of work in the SARNET2 European project on ex-vessel debris formation and coolability was to get an overall perspective on coolability of melt released from a failed reactor pressure vessel and falling into a water-filled cavity. Especially, accident management concepts for BWRs, dealing with deep water pools below the reactor vessel, are addressed, but also shallower pools in existing PWRs, with questions about partial cooling and time delay of molten corium concrete interaction. The subject can be divided into three main topics: (i) Debris bed formation by breakup of melt, (ii) Coolability of debris and (iii) Coupled treatment of the processes. Accompanied by joint collaborations of the partners, the performed work comprises theoretical, experimental and modelling activities.Theoretical work was done by KTH on the melt outflow conditions from a RPV and on the quantification of the probability of yielding a non-coolable ex-vessel bed by use of probabilistic assessment.IKE introduced a theoretical concept to improve debris bed coolability. A large amount of experimental work was done by partners (KTH, VTT, IKE) on the coolability of debris beds using different bed geometries, particles, heating methods and water feeds, yielding a valuable base for code validation. Modelling work was mainly done by IKE, IRSN, RSE and VTT concerning jet breakup and/or debris bed formation and cooling in 2D and 3D geometries. A benchmark for the DEFOR-A experiment of KTH was performed.Important progress was reached for several tasks and aspects and important insights are given, enabling to focus the view on possible key aspects of future activities.

Post-test calculation of the QUENCH-17 bundle experiment with debris formation and bottom water reflood using thermal hydraulic and severe fuel damage code SOCRAT/V3

The thermal hydraulic and SFD (Severe Fuel Damage) best estimate computer modeling code SOCRAT/V3 was used for the post-test analysis of the QUENCH-17 experiment performed at KIT on January 2013. The objective of this test was to examine the formation of a debris bed inside the completely oxidized region of the bundle without melt formation and to investigate the coolability behavior during the reflood. The test bundle for QUENCH-17 test was intentionally changed in comparison to basic QUENCH bundles (usually 21 heated rod simulators) with the emphasis to investigate debris behavior phenomena. Only 12 periphery fuel rod simulators were heated by centerline tungsten heaters. 9 unheated fuel rod simulators were located in the inner part of the test bundle. This is why the massive porous debris formation in the inner part of the bundle was not influenced by the presence of tungsten heaters.The QUENCH-17 test conditions simulated a hypothetical scenario of nuclear power plant severe accident sequence with debris bed formation in which the overheated up to 1800K core would be flooded from the bottom by ECCS (Emergency Core Cooling System). The QUENCH-17 test included the following phases: (1) heat-up phase (heat-up rate up to 0.25K/s); (2) oxidation phase (the cladding temperature about 1800K in hottest region, steam mass flow rate 2g/s); (3) bottom flood phase (characteristic cooling time about 600s, water mass flow rate 10g/s).SOCRAT/V3 computer modeling code was used for calculation of basic thermal hydraulic, oxidation and thermal mechanical behavior during all phases of the experiment. The calculated results are in a good agreement with experimental data which justifies the adequacy of modeling capabilities of SOCRAT code system.

Agglomeration and size distribution of debris in DEFOR-A experiments with Bi2O3–WO3 corium simulant melt

Flooding of lower drywell has been adopted as a cornerstone of severe accident management strategy in Nordic type Boiling Water Reactors (BWR). It is assumed that the melt ejected into a deep pool of water will fragment, quench and form a porous debris bed coolable by natural circulation. If debris bed is not coolable, then dryout and possibly re-melting of the debris can occur. Melt attack on the containment basemat can threaten containment integrity. Agglomeration of melt debris and formation of solid “cake” regions provide a negative impact on coolability of the porous debris bed. In this work we present results of experimental investigation on the fraction of agglomerated debris obtained in the process of hot binary oxidic melt pouring into a pool of water. The Debris Bed Formation and Agglomeration (DEFOR-A) experiments provide data about the effects of the pool depth and water subcooling, melt jet diameter, and initial melt superheat on the fraction of agglomerated debris. The data presents first systematic study of the debris agglomeration phenomena and facilitates understanding of underlying physics which is necessary for development and validation of computational codes to enable prediction of the debris bed coolability in different scenarios of melt release.

Development and validation of conservative-mechanistic and best estimate approaches to quantifying mass fractions of agglomerated debris

Ex-vessel termination of accident progression in Swedish type Boiling Water Reactors (BWRs) is contingent upon efficacy of melt fragmentation, quenching, solidification and formation of a coolable by natural circulation porous debris bed in a deep pool of water below reactor vessel. When liquid melt reaches the bottom of the pool it can cause formation of agglomerated debris and “cake” regions, which affect hydraulic resistance and thus coolability of the bed. This paper discusses development and validation of conservative-mechanistic and best estimate approaches to quantifying mass fractions of agglomerated debris at given conditions of melt release from the vessel. Fuel–coolant interaction (FCI) code VAPEX-P is used as a computational vehicle for modeling. Experimental data from the DEFOR-A (Debris Bed Formation and Agglomeration) tests with binary oxidic simulant material melt is used for validation of developed methods. The paper discusses the influence of different inherent uncertainties in the prediction of the fraction of agglomerated debris.

Three-Dimensional Modeling of Debris Mixing and Sedimentation in Severe Accidents Using the Moving Particle Semi-Implicit Method Coupled with Rigid Body Dynamics

Particle mixing and sedimentation, related to corium debris bed formation and coolability in severe accidents, is investigated using a new computational fluid dynamics tool: the Analysis of Debris Dynamics and Agglomeration (ADDA) code. ADDA was developed based on an enhanced numerical method combining the moving particle semi-implicit algorithm with a rigid body dynamic model. The analysis successively simulates the entire process of debris bed formation, including corium jet breakup, mixing, and sedimentation. The methodology allows identification of key characteristics in the formation of the corium debris bed. Two-dimensional (2-D) and three-dimensional (3-D) simulations were utilized to model the detailed flow structures and mixing phenomena, along with the final sedimentation process, and were compared to the Q21 QUEOS test performed at Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe, Germany. For the analysis of debris bed formation, it is recommended that full 3-D simulations be utilized to provide enhanced accuracy related to corium debris field prediction. The 2-D simulations were found to be insufficient because of the debris field dependence on particle agglomeration and mixing, prior to debris settling.

Coolability of heat-releasing debris bed. Part 2: Uncertainty of dryout heat flux

One-dimensional coolability problem for a flat homogeneous heat-releasing debris bed is considered, with the critical conditions for steady-state cooling characterized by the Dryout Heat Flux (DHF). DHF is determined for top-fed and bottom-fed debris beds from several two-phase models differing by the treatment of porous and interphase drag. Aleatory uncertainties due to randomness of the debris bed formation scenario and respective physical parameters (particle diameter, porosity) are quantified. The influence of ranges and distributions of input parameters on the uncertainty in the DHF are studied. Major contributors to the DHF uncertainty are identified. Influence of model uncertainty on the prediction of the lower boundary for DHF is discussed.