Dead Sea Research Articles

Paleo aridity in the Levant driven by a strong North Atlantic latitudinal surface temperature gradient and present-day relevance

The mechanisms underlying the current greenhouse gas (GHG) forced decline in Mediterranean rainfall remain a matter of debate. To inform our understanding of the current and projected drying, we examined extended arid intervals in the late Quaternary, Eastern Mediterranean (EM) Levant indicated by substantial salt deposits in a Dead Sea sediment core covering the past 220 kyr. These arid events occurred during interglacials, when the Earth was at perihelion to the sun in boreal fall and during glacial-interglacial transitions, associated with icesheet melting. Climate models forced with realistic late Quaternary insolation variations show that when the Earth is closest to the Sun in boreal fall, the North Atlantic latitudinal surface temperature gradient in the winter intensifies. In response, the overlying midlatitude North Atlantic jet stream and the extratropical storm track move poleward while sea-level pressure rises in the subtropics. These changes bring about a weakening of the Mediterranean storm track and a decline in rainfall over the entire basin. During glacial-interglacial transitions, meltwater from continental icesheets forced abrupt subpolar North Atlantic cooling. This also strengthened the latitudinal surface temperature gradient, likely causing similar atmospheric response and aridity in the Mediterranean. There is a strong resemblance between this paleoclimate scenario and the climatic changes corresponding to the present and projected GHG drying of the EM. Hence, the late Quaternary palaeohydrology of the Dead Sea indicates an important North Atlantic centered response to external forcing, which leads to Mediterranean drying and is relevant in the present.

Geochemical evolution of the Dead Sea brine during the last glacial cycle from chemical compositions of interstitial soluble salts

The chemical evolution of the brines that filled the Dead Sea Basin during the final phase of the last interglacial and throughout the last glacial period is constructed from the temporal variations in the Na/Cl, Mg/Cl, Br/Cl, and Br/Mg ratios of soluble salts that extracted from cores that were drilled at the modern Dead Sea floor and from sediments of the last glacial Lisan Fm. that are exposed at the high terraces above the modern Dead Sea (covering the ∼ 100–13 ka period).The main observations are: (1) Variations in the Na/Cl ratios reflect processes of halite precipitation/dissolution during arid/wet periods in the drainage basin, respectively, and exchanges between the upper and the lower brines; (2) Ions of Na + and Cl-were supplied to the brines by the dissolution of halite from the Mount Sedom salt diapir, and of halite deposits, which precipitated in the lake during the hyper-arid periods of the last interglacial; (3) The upper brine of Lake Lisan was sensitive to the hydroclimatic conditions in the lake’s drainage basin, since being directly exposed to the atmosphere, and to variations in flows of freshwater and groundwater brines, which had distinct influence on its chemical record. At the same time, the lower brine was isolated from the surroundings, by the overlying brine and received chemical inputs only by restrict mixing between the brines which buffered the intensity of regional hydro-climatic events.Temporal patterns in the Na/Cl ratios indicate that between ∼ 100–30 ka, the deep brine evolved through a moderate but steady “enrichment” by Na + and Cl-ions due to continuous dissolution of halite by the upper brine of the lake. Towards the end of this period, between ∼ 43–30 ka, the Amiaz plain, a marginal basin, comprised a semi-isolated water-body that witnessed frequent episodes of halite precipitation/dissolution with temporal patterns that resemble millennial temperature (δ18O) variations in the Greenland ice core.Between ∼ 30–18 ka (MIS 2), when Lake Lisan reached its highest stands and maximumspatialexpansion, the soluble salts from the deepest basin and from the high sections of the Lisan Fm. indicate on centennial dissolution cycles of the Mount Sedom salt diapir that took place in the upper brine and sank down to the lower brine. During the ∼ 18–14 ka decline of the lake to its low levels of the Holocene, the elemental ratios reveal several episodes of enhanced supply of freshwater to the shrinking lake, causing intensified halite dissolution and supply of Na + and Cl- ions to the deep basin, setting the grounds for massive halite precipitation, which initiated after a sharp level decline at ∼ 14 ka.The long-term (∼100–13 ka) temporal pattern in the elemental ratios of the lower brine resembles global CO2concentrations and sea surface temperature trends, while the short-term fluctuations in the upper brine are correlated with short warm/cold cycles in the Greenland ice core δ18O data, indicating a strong impact of the global climate.

Dead Sea water as a sustainable source for the production of microbial bioplastics polyhydroxyalkanoates by halophiles

The Dead Sea is a unique salt-saturated water body. This work utilized the Dead Sea water (DSW) as a medium instead of fresh water for the biosynthesis of polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) by Haloferax mediterranei. The intracellular content of PHAs reached a maximum (6.35 %) at 40 % DSW. An artificial DSW media that mimics the DSW composition was prepared and used for PHAs production by H. mediterranei. The cell dry mass (CDM) and PHAs comcentration (32.61 g L−1 and 4.56 g L−1, respectively) were significantly higher than the results obtained from the reported H. mediterranei highly saline medium. The PHAs production was scaled-up to fed-batch utilizing no-cost date fruit waste and resulted in CDM and PHA concentration of 46.89 g L−1 and 12.77 g L−1, respectively under non-sterile conditions. H. mediterranei accumulated poly-3-(hydroxybutyrate-co-9 %-hydroxyvalerate) with molar mass 916.0 kDa and melting point at 143.2 °C. These results indicate the production of a high-quality biopolymer.

Classified Plant Al-Dhahiriya in the South of Palestine

We studied plant species of Dhahiriya in the period between January to October 2021, and January to Jun 2024, due to the importance of plants in that vital part of Palestine, which is located in southern Palestine, including that region’s climate, and unique plants that represent of the Mediterranean region plants, North Africa, Sinai desert, Negev, Dead Sea, and Red Sea. It used the Braun-Blanquet (1979) method for the identification of plants. Moreover, Plants have been studied in Dhahiriya, located in southern Palestine. A total of 770 species from 70 families were identified, of which 86 (11.16%) are endemic. The plant families with the highest representation were Asteraceae (14.54%), Fabaceae (14%), Poaceae (7.41%), and Lamiaceae (5.19%). Regarding plant life forms, Therophytes account for 47%, Hemicryptophytes for 20.35%, Shrubs or Chamaephytes for 14.05%, and Trees or Phanerophytes for 9.05%, with a notable increase in spring.

Early Configurations of Jewish Prayer

Abstract The argument of this article is that there are remarkable affinities between early configurations of Jewish prayer in the Second Temple period and the later rabbinic liturgical system. The article examines Greek and Hebrew sources that exhibit a process of deepening and purification in which sacrificial worship is reinterpreted and relegated to other domains of non-sacrificial worship and service. Furthermore, the article explores elements of the sacrificial cult that are incorporated into prayers from the Second Temple period. My argument relies on both textual and material evidence, including the works of Philo of Alexandria, the Dead Sea Scrolls, excerpted texts and tefillin, and the Septuagint of Daniel.

Dam impoundment near active faults in areas with high seismic potential: Case studies from Bisri and Mseilha dams, Lebanon

Reservoir induced seismicity is caused by stress changes due to the impoundment of water behind dams. In seismically active areas, the presence of critically located active faults makes the impoundment of water behind dams a seismic safety risk. Dam projects in Lebanon have become a soaring example of complacency and negligence that has overlooked the concerns for seismic safety raised over the projects and their high potential of inducing seismicity. In this paper, we use 2D and 3D fully coupled poroelastic modeling to assess the risk of dam impoundment on seismogenic faults located near dam sites in Lebanon. The coulomb failure stresses are calculated along the faults, and their variations are observed in relation to changes in pore pressures and normal stresses. In addition, the expected maximum earthquake magnitudes are computed along those faults. Our results show a high risk for reservoir induced seismicity on faults that are either underneath the reservoir or hydraulically connected to a fault beneath the reservoir. Consequently, the studied dams would present a serious hazard of induced seismicity in time where the region is already at high risk of destructive earthquakes after the catastrophic seismic events that struck Turkey and Syria on 6 February 2023 on the Eastern Anatolian Fault, which is connected to the Dead Sea Transform Fault that passes through Lebanon.

Assessment of neuromodulatory effects of Origanum punonense danin essential oil on AMPA receptor function using whole-cell patch-clamp technique

Introduction: The quest for natural compounds with neuromodulatory properties has gained significant momentum in neuropharmacology. Among these, Origanum punonense (O. punonense) essential oil (EO) stands out due to its rich bioactive profile, particularly characterized by carvacrol. This study aimed to elucidate the effects of O. punonense EO on α-amino-3‑hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid receptors (AMPAR), crucial synaptic plasticity, and cognitive function mediators. Methods: Leaves of O. punonense were collected along the Dead Sea coast in Jericho. After washing, it was dried in the shade for 15 days and ground. Essential oil was extracted using a microwave-ultrasonic method, with ultrasonic waves to enhance extraction. Using whole-cell patch-clamp techniques, we studied the effects of O. punonense EO on AMPAR kinetics in HEK293t cells transfected with homomeric and heteromeric subunits. Results: O. punonense EO significantly reduced AMPAR's whole-cell currents, indicating a targeted modulation of synaptic responses. Oil administration inhibited the currents for glutamate receptor subunits GluA1 (reduced from 885±58 pA to 342±20 pA), GluA1/2 (from 627±77 pA to 209±36 pA), GluA2 (from 1125±112 pA to 256±37 pA), and GluA2/3 (from 474±79 pA to 125±31 pA). The EO decreased the desensitization rate significantly for GluA2 and GluA2/3 (p < 0.01) and for GluA1/2 (p < 0.05), except for GluA1. In addition, the EO increased the deactivation rate significantly for GluA2 and GluA2/3 (p < 0.01) and for GluA1/2 (p < 0.05), with no effect observed on GluA1. Conclusions: This study highlights the possible properties of O. punonense EO and suggests future research to understand its medicinal benefits in neurodegenerative diseases.

Enhancing Co-Benefits and reducing Flood Risks through Nature-based Solutions and Assessments: A Case Study in the Dead Sea Region of Jordan

Enhancing Co-Benefits and reducing Flood Risks through Nature-based Solutions and Assessments: A Case Study in the Dead Sea Region of Jordan

Device extracts lithium from Dead Sea brine

Device extracts lithium from Dead Sea brine

A new type of submarine chimneys built of halite

In contrast to the subaquatic sulphide and carbonate chimneys, which are known from Mid Ocean Ridges and abyssal submarine volcanoes, chimneys built of salts have not been described yet. Here we present such halite chimneys as a new form of cold-water smokers in hypersaline environments. The here described structures rise up from the bottom of the Dead Sea and result from the submarine discharge of saturated halite-dissolution brines into the salt lake, which is at halite saturation and holds remarkable chloride excess. At the interface with the lake brine, halite precipitates instantaneously, forming chimneys up to several meters in height. The brines leading to the formation of these chimneys vary in composition, while their generation processes are similar. Fresh groundwater from surrounding aquifers enters the saline lake sediments and considerably leaches halite in the adjacencies of the lake. Simultaneously, it mixes with ancient brines before it emerges from the lake floor. The distinct differences in composition between the Dead Sea and the emerging chimney brines lead to the instantaneous crystallisation of halite and few other mineral phases. The chimney structure result from the buoyancy flow of the chimney brines, which are less dense then the ambient Dead Sea.The chimneys indicate intense cavitation of massive halite bodies in the subsurface of the Dead Sea environment, a process that leads to increasing formation of hazardous sinkholes. Since chimneys are proven in shallow water but may be expected in deeper parts too, they are comfortably mappable by echo-sounding or aerial imaging. They thus provide in the Dead Sea as in any likewise setting a potent predictive tool to locate dangerous subsurface cavitation and hence areas that are at risk of collapse in the near future.

The ICDP Dead Sea drilling project: A window into the past 220 kyrs of hydroclimate and seismicity of the Eastern Mediterranean-Levant

The ICDP Dead Sea drilling project: A window into the past 220 kyrs of hydroclimate and seismicity of the Eastern Mediterranean-Levant

When did the Dead Sea fault become a transform?

This study re-evaluates the ~20 Myr development of the Dead Sea Fault System (DSFS) and its tectonic definition as a transform plate boundary. The DSFS conveys sinistral displacement between the Arabian-Sinai plates: ~105 km along its ~400 km-long southern segment (Gulf of Aqaba-Eilat to the Hula basin); ~90 km and 4–16 km along the central and northern segments (~190 km long each, across Lebanon, western Syria, and southern Turkey). A review of previous studies, combined with new seismological data analysis, associates the northward displacement decline with obstacles along the DSFS propagation path. During the Miocene, DSFS propagated up to the NW-trending Irbid rift (1st obstacle) and splayed NW towards the Mediterranean and NE along the Late Cretaceous Palmyra fold-thrust belt (2nd obstacle). Its reactivation uplifted the Hermon and the Anti-Lebanon mountain ranges. Northward DSFS propagation into the cold and rigid Aleppo plateau lithosphere (3rd obstacle) was stalled until the early Pliocene (~5 Ma), when volcanism and ongoing regional tectonic forcing enabled the DSFS to shift to the Yammouneh fault and rupture through the Missyaf-Ghab branch farther north (central and northern segments, respectively). During the Pleistocene-recent, connection of the DSFS with the ophiolite belt and East Anatolian Fault System (EAFS) along the Bitlis suture zone (4th obstacle) has not yet been established. Seismological data show a clear separation between the EAFS and the DSFS, while seismicity is scattered across the Aleppo plateau and the central and northern DSFS segments. In contrast, seismicity is localized along the southern DSFS segment. Our findings suggest that, at present, the DSFS has still not made a structural, seismologic, and tectonic connection with the EAFS. Hence, we redefine the DSFS as a pre-transform and suggest its interaction with the EAFS is a world-class example of a fault-fault-fault triple junction in the making.

Decoding Stress Patterns of the 2023 Türkiye‐Syria Earthquake Doublet

AbstractEarthquake interaction across multiple time scales can reveal complex stress evolution and rupture patterns. Here, we investigate the role of static stress change in the 2023 Mw 7.8 and 7.6 earthquake doublet along the East Anatolian Fault (EAF), using simulations of 19 historical earthquakes (M ≥ 6.1) and the 2023 earthquake doublet from 1822 to 2023. Focusing on six cascading sub‐events during the 2023 Kahramanmaraş earthquake doublet, we reveal how one sub‐event's stress alteration can impact the emergence and rupture of subsequent sub‐events. Our analysis unveils that the 2023 Mw 7.8 earthquake was delayed due to stress shadow effects from historical events, while the 2023 Mw 7.6 earthquake was accelerated as a result of stress increases from historical events and ultimately triggered by the 2023 Mw 7.8 earthquake. This study underscores the importance of grasping earthquake preparation, rupture initiation, propagation, and termination in the context of intricate fault systems worldwide. Based on these results, we draw attention to increased seismic hazards in the Elazig‐Bingol seismic gap of the EAF and the northern section of the Dead Sea Fault (DSF), necessitating increased monitoring and preparedness efforts.

Deflected Mantle Flow and Shearing‐Aligned Lithospheric Melt Under the Strike‐Slip Dead Sea Rift

AbstractContinental rifting is one of the fundamental tectonics of the Earth evolution while our current understandings on the dynamic mechanism of the strike‐slip ones are relatively limited. Here, we have utilized three kinds of core‐refracted shear waves (including PKS, SKKS, and SKS) and employed the shear‐wave splitting technique to systematically investigate the azimuthal anisotropy of the upper mantle under the typical strike‐slip Dead Sea rift. There are a total of 1,855 well‐determined anisotropic measurements from 187 stations with dominantly N‐S fast orientations. We have proposed a new model from a joint analysis of multiple newly available geophysical observations to interpret the resulting anisotropy as mainly due to the absolute‐plate‐motion‐driven mantle flow deflected by the thick lithosphere of the eastern Arabian plate. Relatively larger splitting times are locally revealed at the rift zone and attributed to additional lithospheric anisotropy from the shearing‐oriented melt pockets whose existence further induces complex anisotropy with slight difference of fast orientations between the upper and lower layer anisotropy. The overall rift‐parallel fast orientations, when combined with the absence of low‐velocity and hot thermal anomalies in the mantle transition zone, rule out the role of mantle plume or edge‐driven convection in the rift development and further infer the Dead Sea rift to evolve in a passive mode.

Source Geometry and Rupture Characteristics of the 20 February 2023 Mw 6.4 Hatay (Türkiye) Earthquake at Southwest Edge of the East Anatolian Fault

AbstractFollowing the catastrophic 6 February 2023 Mw 7.8 and Mw 7.6 Kahramanmaraş earthquakes in the East Anatolian Fault Zone (EAFZ; southeast Türkiye), numerous aftershocks occurred along the major branches of this left‐lateral shear zone. The spatio‐temporal distribution of the earthquakes implied the stress‐triggering effects of co‐seismic ruptures on closely connected fault segments over large distances. On the 20 February 2023 two earthquakes with Mw 6.4 and Mw 5.2 struck Hatay (Türkiye) located near the Samandağ‐Antakya segment of the EAFZ. To understand the rupture evolution of these earthquakes, we first re‐located the aftershock sequence that occurred over a 3‐month period in the Hatay‐Syria region. A normal faulting mechanism with a significant amount of left‐lateral strike‐slip component at a shallow focal depth of 12 km was estimated for the 2023 Mw 6.4 earthquake from the inversion of seismological data. Our slip models describe a relatively simple and unilateral rupture propagation along about 36 km‐long active segments of the EAFZ. The co‐seismic horizontal displacements inferred from the Global Navigation Satellite System data are compatible with the oblique slip kinematics. Furthermore, we suggest that this earthquake did not produce notable tsunami waves on the adjacent coasts since the rupture plane did not extend to the seafloor of the Eastern Mediterranean with substantial amount of vertical displacement. We reckon that a future large earthquake (Mw ≥ 7.0) in the Hatay‐Syria region where increased stress was transferred to the fault segments of the EAFZ and the Dead Sea Fault Zone (DSFZ) after the 2023 earthquakes will be a probable source of tsunami at the coastal plains of the Eastern Mediterranean Sea region.

Lithium extraction from brine through a decoupled and membrane-free electrochemical cell design.

The sustainability of lithium-based energy storage or conversion systems, e.g., lithium-ion batteries, can be enhanced by establishing methods of efficient lithium extraction from harsh brines. In this work, we describe a decoupled membrane-free electrochemical cell that cycles lithium ions between iron-phosphate electrodes and features cathode (brine) and anode (fresh water) compartments that are isolated from each other yet electrochemically connected through a pair of silver/silver-halide redox electrodes. This design is compatible with harsh brines having magnesium/lithium molar ratios of up to 3258 and lithium concentrations down to 0.15 millimolar, enabling the production of battery-grade (>99.95% pure) lithium carbonate. Energy savings of up to ~21.5% were realized by efficiently harvesting the osmotic energy of the brines. A pilot-scale cell with an electrode surface area of 33.75 square meters was used to realize lithium extraction from Dead Sea brine with a recovery rate of 84.0%.

Influence of flood events on the response of steep and coarse-grained channels to base-level lowering in an arid setting

The Dead Sea level has been undergoing a continuous and rapid lowering, presently ∼ 1.1 m/yr, providing a real time laboratory to examine the response of drainage systems to base level drop. There is a gap of knowledge concerning the impact of floods on the fluvial system in an environment of continuous base level lowering. Such knowledge is of pronounced importance due to the world-wide reduction of natural water recourses caused by human and climate impacts. We relate the effects of flash floods on morphological changes in small, steep and coarse-grained alluvial channels as a response to a rapid base level fall. We studied the steep (7–9 %) David and Qedem channels draining to the Dead Sea by (i) monitoring flow events using depth transducers and (ii) topographic changes by repeat drone-based photogrammetric surveys to quantify fluvio-morphological dynamics, and (iii) analyzed boulder-related bedforms and their distance from the thalweg. Altogether 15 monitored flow events of varying magnitude led to a wide range of fluvio-morphological changes. Considerable erosion occurred as expressed by bank collapse and channel bed incision. Small events displayed incision with morphological changes limited to the downstream reach, while larger events caused morphological changes throughout the entire channel. Substantial deposition at the outlet occurred together with local mechanisms of deposition upstream. The extents of erosion and net volumes of change highly correlated with event peak-discharge and event water volume. Frequent thalweg deflections occurred, some of which were related to the interaction with boulders. Boulder ribs displayed processes of formation/destruction in multiple phases, often occurring in larger events. The examined aspects illustrate the unique dynamics of a continuously unstable fluvial system under a flash-flood hydrological regime and its impact on fan delta incision and sediment transport processes.

Investigation of the effects of Kahramanmaraş earthquake series on Cyprus Arc, Dead Sea fault, Hatay regions and stations close to two earthquakes epicenters

In various parts of the globe, there have been several earthquakes of a modest size. Monitoring the change of the points over time is a key component of typical techniques for extracting dynamic responses. This technique was unable to completely extract all of the earthquake’s dynamic properties. The GNSS precise point positioning (PPP) may be a useful tool for obtaining values of the point’s displacement that are more exact up to millimeters, which can help to overcome these flaws and evaluate the seismic wave of such earthquakes. Ultimately, PPP is a crucial tool for getting the precise observations. In this study, Canadian Spatial Reference System Precise Point Positioning (CSRS-PPP) approach to analyze the station’s displacement components and the station’s heights in periods from the two Kahramanmaraş earthquakes. The earthquake sequences that occurred in Turkey’s Kahramanmaraş in 2023 is an example of complicated faulting brought on by interactions between three plates close to the Hatay Triple Junction (HTJ). While the relative plate movements in this area are minimal (usually less than 10 mm/year), even sluggish plate motion zones may nevertheless see earthquakes that are quite destructive. Due to the three-plate system’s unusual geometry, a number of large earthquakes with very varied fault orientations were active throughout this series. A 7.8-magnitude earthquake happened on February 6, 2023 in southern Turkey, close to Syria’s northern border. A magnitude 7.5 earthquake, situated about 95 kilometers to the southwest, was occurred nine hours after the first one. The first earthquake was as big as the most powerful one ever recorded there in 1939 and was the most catastrophic to strike earthquake-prone Turkey in more than 20 years. In this study, the effects of two earthquakes in Kahramanmaraş were investigated on the Cyprus Arc, the Dead Sea fault, Hatay and the points close to two earthquakes zone. In the obtained results, it was computed that the greatest horizontal displacement occurred at the HAT2 station with 68.97 cm.

Continental rift evolution and drainage reorganization along the Dead Sea rift since the Miocene

The Dead Sea fault is a section of the Arabian-African plate boundary. Widespread field relations indicate that three major drainage systems (stages) occupied the landscape west of the Dead Sea fault since its initiation at ca. 20 Ma. Specifically, (1) an early to middle Miocene drainage system, only minorly reconfigured by the fault (all sediments of this system belong to the Hazeva Formation); (2) a late Miocene to early Pleistocene fault-parallel drainage system named Paran-Neqarot (all sediments of this system belong to the Arava and Zehiha Formations; and (3) the early Pleistocene to present drainage configuration. The temporal and spatial frameworks of drainage stage 1 are generally constrained by radiometric dating of interfingering volcanic units, and the onset and temporal and spatial frameworks of drainage stage 3 are well constrained by cosmogenic 10Be surface exposure ages. The timing and longevity of the rift-parallel drainage (stage 2) have until now been evasive to direct dating. The overall time gap between stages 1 and 3 is ∼12−13 million years. Thus, an early age (within this time gap) of stage 2 would imply an immediate response of drainage reorganization to rift tectonics, while a later age of this drainage system would imply a delayed response. We present 11 10Be-26Al cosmogenic burial ages of alluvial and colluvial units related to the fault-parallel drainage system (stage 2), which collectively constrain the time of deposition of the Arava Formation sediments in the central Negev to ca. 8 Ma. The general lack of stratigraphic order, together with the large dispersion of ages both across and within the sampling sites, attests to significant recycling of sediments from drainage stage 1 into the Arava Formation deposits. The termination of Arava and Zehiha Formation sediment deposition at ca. 1.8 Ma was determined previously using cosmogenic exposure ages of desert pavements that cover the formations. Combining the previously published data with our new data, we established the longevity and character of the Paran-Neqarot drainage system. This framework highlights the temporal aspect of drainage system build-up and collapse as it responded to transform and extensional plate boundary tectonics during the Neogene.

‘A Dead Sea of Solar Panels:’ solar enclosure, extractivism and the progressive degradation of the California desert

ABSTRACT Based on conversations with 38 interview respondents, four focus groups and participant observation, this article examines intensive solar energy development in east Riverside County, California. Focusing on the Desert Center area, it argues that environmental policy, expressed through market-imperatives and bureaucratically-centered modeling science, severely threatens ecosystems, meanwhile failing to accomplish climate change mitigation. Critical Agrarian Studies (CAS) and Environmental Justice (EJ) are brought into dialogue to explore solar extractivism in Desert Center through the Four-Es (4Es) framework: Enclosure, Exclusion, Encroachment and Entrenchment. A scientific-bureaucratic approach to sustainable development, we find, structurally disregards rural residents, desert habitats and releases more carbon into the atmosphere.