David's Deer Research Articles

Metastatic Adenocarcinoma of the Mammary Gland in a Père David's Deer

A 4-year-old female Pere David’s deer (Elaphurus davidianus) was found in lateral recumbency and submitted to the College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University. The animal, 1 of 40 in a privately owned herd, had been inactive and had continually licked its inguinal area for the previous 3 weeks. The deer remained sternally recumbent during the physical examination and was depressed, moderately dehydrated, and very thin (118 kg) and had a temperature of 39.5 C. The teats were recognizable, but the mammary tissue was replaced by multiple firm nodules that extended cranially along the lymphatics of the ventral midline and caudally into the inguinal area. A necrotic area in the cranial mammary gland was infested with fly larvae. The owner did not know if the animal had ever lactated. Differential diagnoses included trauma, foreign body with secondary infection, and neoplasia. The prognosis was guarded. Serum chemistries and hematology showed anemia, with leukocytosis (13.5 x 10, n = 5.1 ± 3.1), hyperphosphatemia (13.1 mg/dl, n = 6.3 ± 1.3), hypocalcemia (8.0 mg/ dl, n = 9.6 ± 0.8), and elevated aspartate aminotransferase (268 U/liter, n = 95 ± 80). Radiographic evaluation of the area revealed a large wound on the caudoventral abdomen with multiple fistulas. Cytologic examination of the nodules was conducted. Cellularity was low to moderate and consisted of irregularly shaped individual cells or cells in clusters. Nuclei were round to oval, located centrally or slightly eccentrically, and had coarse reticular chromatin and prominent nucleoli. Anisokaryosis was slight to moderate, but an occasional large nucleus was seen, and multinucleated cells had > 4 nuclei. Findings were suggestive of a carcinoma rather than a granulomatous response. The animals condition deteriorated, and it died. On necropsy, the entire mammary gland was enlarged, firm, and nodular and had an open necrotic area 14 cm wide and 4 cm deep. From the umbilicus caudal to the mammary gland, the subcutaneous tissue contained multiple nodules. The largest one was 6-8 cm, with a necrotic center containing brownish opaque fluid. Subcutaneous tissue along both sides of the body was firm and whitish. The medial side of the right hind leg had 8x 10-cm streaks of flat, firm, whitebrown tissue within the muscle radiating downward from the inguinal area. A smaller 2x 3-cm area was present on the left hind leg. Both prefemoral lymph nodes of both legs were 8 cm with caseous centers. Popliteal lymph nodes were 3 cm, white, and firm. Reddish, opaque, watery fluid was present in the thoracic cavity. The lungs had multiple, 1-4-cm, slightly raised, white nodules with occasionally necrotic centers. Reddish, raised

Gestation periods in the Pere David's deer (Elaphurus davidianus): evidence for embryonic diapause or delayed development

It has been suggested that the gestation length of the Père David's deer is around 280 days, which is significantly longer than any other deer species except the roe deer (approximately 300 days) which exhibits embryonic diapause. The present study was designed to determine whether embryonic diapause exists in the Père David's deer by accurately monitoring gestation length. There was no difference in gestation length (283-284 days) between animals mated early and later in the breeding season. Hence, although Père David's deer exhibit a longer gestation period than that predicted from maternal body weight, there is no evidence for seasonal control of implantation. Actual birth weight is as predicted from an interspecific comparison of ungulates. The data imply either that there is an obligate period of embryonic diapause, irrespective of season, or that postimplantation fetal growth rate is slow compared with that in other deer species.

Prostaglandin-induced secretion of oxytocin and prolactin in red ( Cervus elaphus) and Pere David's ( Elaphurus davidianus) deer hinds: Evidence for oxytocin of luteal origin

Peripheral plasma concentrations of oxytocin in female red deer during the luteal phase of the oestrous cycle (9.3 ± 2.1 fmol/ml) exceeded those in the follicular phase (3.1 ± 1.4) or during seasonal anoestrus (3.2 ± 1.3). In both red and Père David's deer hinds during the mid-luteal phase of the cycle, systemic administration of a luteolytic dose of the prostaglandin F 2α analogue, cloprostenol, caused the concentration of oxytocin in the peripheral circulation to rise. Mean (±SEM) concentrations increased from 8.1 ± 0.7 to 97 ± 8 fmol/ml in red and from 6.2 ± 0.7 to 153 ± 30 fmol/ml in Père David's hinds within 5 min of treatment. During seasonal anoestrus oxytocin secretion in response to cloprostenol was reduced to less than 10% of that during the breeding season, in both species. Cloprostenol treatment raised circulating concentrations of prolactin in both species during the breeding season, and during anoestrus in red deer only. The concentration of oxytocin in a single corpus luteum removed at laparotomy from one red deer hind at the mid-luteal phase of the cycle was 66 nmol/g wet wt; identification was authenticated by HPLC. These results suggest that the corpus luteum secretes oxytocin in the Cervidae, as established previously in the Bovidae, and that luteal oxytocin secretion is stimulated by prostaglandin.

Phenotypic analysis of lymphoblastoid cell lines derived from cattle and deer affected with “sheep-associated” malignant catarrhal fever

Established lymphoblastoid cell lines with natural killer cell-like activity have been derived from cattle and deer affected with malignant catarrhal fever. They were examined phenotypically using monoclonal antibodies chosen for their cross-reactivity with peripheral blood lymphocytes from these species. Cell lines established from three of four cattle were identified as cytotoxic/suppressor lymphocytes (CD4 -/CD8 +/T19 -) whilst the other was shown to be of the helper cell phenotype (CD4 +/ CD8 − /T19 −). Two other cell lines, one derived from a red deer and the other from a Pére David's deer, were both CD4 -/CD8 -/T19. All of the lines examined expressed a T cell receptor (CD2 +).

Efficacy of intermittent or continuous administration of GnRH in inducing ovulation in early and late seasonal anoestrus in the Pere David's deer hind (Elaphurus davidianus)

Père David's deer hinds were treated with GnRH, administered as intermittent i.v. injections (2.0 micrograms/injection at 2-h intervals) for 4 days, or as a continuous s.c. infusion (1.0 micrograms/h) for 14 days. These treatments were given early (February-March) and late (May-June) in the period of seasonal anoestrus. The administration of repeated injections of GnRH increased mean LH concentrations from pretreatment values of 0.54 +/- 0.09 to 2.10 +/- 0.25 ng/ml over the first 8 h of treatment in early anoestrus, and from 0.62 +/- 0.11 to 2.73 +/- 0.49 ng/ml in late anoestrus. The mean amplitude of GnRH-induced LH episodes was greater (P less than 0.01) in late (4.03 +/- 0.28 ng/ml) than in early (3.12 +/- 0.26 ng/ml) anoestrus, but within each replicate (early or late anoestrus), neither mean LH episode amplitude nor mean plasma LH concentrations differed significantly between the four periods of intensive blood sampling. On the basis of their progesterone profiles, 6/12 hinds had ovulated in response to treatment with injections of GnRH (1/6 in early anoestrus and 5/6 in late anoestrus), and oestrus and a preovulatory LH surge were recorded in all of these animals. Oestrus and a preovulatory LH surge were also recorded in one other animal treated in early anoestrus in which progesterone concentrations remained low. The mean times of onset of oestrus (91.0 +/- 1.00 and 62.4 +/- 0.98 h) and of the preovulatory LH surge (85.8 +/- 3.76 and 59.4 +/- 0.25 h) both occurred significantly earlier (P less than 0.001) in animals treated in late anoestrus. Continuous infusion of GnRH to seasonally anoestrous hinds resulted in an increase in mean plasma LH concentrations, but this response did not differ significantly between early (2.15 +/- 0.28 ng/ml) and late (2.48 +/- 0.26 ng/ml) anoestrus. Ovulation, based on progesterone profiles, occurred in 2/7 hinds in early anoestrus and in 4/6 hinds in late anoestrus. Oestrus was detected in all except one of these hinds. The mean time of onset of oestrus occurred earlier in animals treated in late anoestrus (66.2 +/- 0.32 h and 46.7 +/- 0.67 h, P less than 0.01). The administration of GnRH, given either intermittently or continuously, will induce ovulation in a proportion of seasonally anoestrous Père David's deer. However, more animals ovulate in response to this treatment in late than in early anoestrus (75% compared with 23%).

LH secretion and response to GnRH during seasonal anoestrus of the Pere David's deer hind (Elaphurus davidianus)

The pattern of LH secretion and response to exogenous GnRH was determined on 5 occasions during seasonal anoestrus of the Père David's deer hind. LH pulse frequency was low (3.3 +/- 0.6 pulses/18 h) in early anoestrus (February), increased significantly in mid-anoestrus (April; 8.4 +/- 1.4 pulses/18 h) and thereafter declined slightly in late anoestrus (June; 6.3 +/- 0.25 pulses/18 h). Mean LH concentrations also showed significant changes during anoestrus with higher levels in mid-anoestrus (April; 0.85 +/- 0.12 ng/ml) when compared with other times (0.53 +/- 0.05, 0.60 +/- 0.10, 0.68 +/- 0.06 and 0.71 +/- 0.05 ng/ml for February, March, May and June, respectively). LH pulse amplitude showed no significant changes during the study. The LH response to intravenous injections of 2 micrograms GnRH was lowest in early anoestrus (February), increased significantly in mid-anoestrus (April) and remained high through late anoestrus. The response during the luteal phase was similar to that seen during late anoestrus. These results indicate that seasonal anoestrus in the Père David's deer hind is not a uniform state but is characterized by an early period of 'deep' anoestrus.

Pulsatile secretion of LH during the periovulatory and luteal phases of the oestrous cycle in the Pere David's deer hind (Elaphurus davidianus)

Changes in the secretion of LH during the oestrous cycle were studied in 5 tame Père David's deer in which ovulation was synchronized with progesterone implants and prostaglandin injections. Plasma LH concentrations were measured in samples collected at 15-min intervals for a 36-h period, starting 16 h after the removal of the progesterone implants (follicular phase), and for a further 10-h period 10 days after the removal of the progesterone implants (luteal phase). In all animals, there was a preovulatory surge of LH and behavioural oestrus which occurred at a mean time of 59.6 h (+/- 3.25) and 69 h respectively following implant removal. LH pulse frequency was significantly higher during the follicular phase (0.59 +/- 0.03 pulses/h) than the luteal phase (0.24 +/- 0.2 pulses/h), thus confirming in deer findings from research on domesticated ruminants. There were no significant differences between the follicular and luteal phases in mean plasma LH concentrations (0.57 +/- 0.09 and 0.74 +/- 0.13 ng/ml) or mean pulse amplitude (0.99 +/- 0.14 and 1.05 +/- 0.21 ng/ml) for the follicular and luteal phase respectively. The long interval from the removal of progesterone to the onset of the LH surge and the absence of a significant difference in mean LH concentration or pulse amplitude in the follicular and luteal phases resemble published data for cattle but differ from sheep in which there is a short interval from luteal regression to the onset of the surge and a marked increase in LH pulse amplitude during the luteal phase.

Antibody to alcelaphine herpesvirus-1 (ahv-1) in hamsters experimentally infected with ahv-1 and the ‘sheep-associated’ agent of malignant catarrhal fever

Malignant catarrhal fever was induced in four groups of hamsters by the inoculation of cells infected with either the C/500 isolate of alcelaphine herpes-virus-1 (AHV-1) or the sheep-associated agent derived from cattle, red deer or Père David's deer. Using an indirect immunofluorescence assay, antibody to AHV-1 was detected in sera of clinically affected animals of all four groups. The reaction of sera from hamsters affected with malignant catarrhal fever induced by AHV-1 caused diffuse cytoplasmic staining while that from sera of hamsters with the sheep-associated form of the disease stained particulate nuclear antigens. Tests employing three other bovid herpesviruses were negative and no reaction was found with sera from normal hamsters. These studies provide convincing evidence that a virus antigenically related to AHV-1 is the cause of sheep-associated malignant catarrhal fever and that the same virus probably causes this form of the disease in both cattle and deer.

Isolation and characterisation of lymphoblastoid cells from cattle and deer affected with ‘sheep-associated’ malignant catarrhal fever

Cells with the histological and ultrastructural characteristics of large granular lymphocytes (LGL) have been obtained in culture from both cattle and red deer (Cervus elaphus) reacting with 'sheep-associated' malignant catarrhal fever (MCF). Such cells have been derived from thymus, lymph node and spleen suspensions as well as from cerebrospinal fluid cells and cultured cornea. On most occasions their presence was observed only transitorily but by providing the cells with feeder monolayers and, or, interleukin-2, several lines were maintained indefinitely, and some became independent of these factors after prolonged culture. A similar cell line was also derived from a Père David's deer affected with MCF at Whipsnade zoological park. Functionally, cultured LGL were cytotoxic to both primary cell cultures and cell lines and their cytotoxicity was not restricted to histocompatible target cells. These findings suggest that the cultured cells have natural killer cell-like activity and that they are important targets for the agent of MCF in cattle and deer. One cell line derived from a red deer transmitted the disease but none of the cells generated from cattle did.

Rhythms of reproduction, metabolism and coat growth in deer: a model for all non-domesticated seasonal ungulates?

Seasonally-breeding deer living in cool temperate environments exhibit pronounced seasonal rhythms of voluntary food intake, growth rate and fattening and the growth and development of the coat. All of these rhythms are considered to be entrained by photoperiod and melatonin, although so far this has only been demonstrated to be the case in one species, the red deer. This paper reviewed current data on seasonal rhythms in several species of deer. A comparison of two species with different breeding seasons, the red deer and the Pere David's deer, indicated that seasonal reproduction, appetite and coat growth rhythms are linked and may be controlled by a single circannual rhythm generator. All of these seasonal rhythms should be considered as adaptive for species living in cool temperate environments with marked fluctuations in food supply and climatic conditions.

The reproductive biology of female Père David's deer (Elaphurus davidianus)

AbstractData for this study came from breeding records of 27 Père David's (Elaphurus davidianus) hinds maintained in large pastures and from estrous records of four hand‐reared nulliparous hinds. The mean estrous cycle length ranged from 17.5 to 19.6 days. Standing estrus resembled that of other cervids, except that a low, moaning vocalization was given in response to contact, and activity (as measured by pedometers) did not increase. Mean gestation length was 183.38 ± SD 6.11 days (n = 21), and nearly all females conceived in the second and third years. The median interbirth interval was 362 days. The median birth date was April 8, and 80% of the births occurred over a 9.5‐week period. Multiparous hinds gave birth an average of 20.5 days earlier in the season than primiparous hinds. There was no dimorphism in birth weight. The results are discussed in light of comparative data for other species.

Hybridization of Père David's deer (Elaphurus davidianus) and red deer (Cervus elaphus) by artificial insemination

Hybridization of Père David's deer (<i>Elaphurus davidianus</i>) and red deer (<i>Cervus elaphus</i>) by artificial insemination

Disease and Endangered Species: The Black‐footed Ferret as a Recent Example

:Diseases may play major roles in the conservation of endangered species. Although the threat of disease received extensive consideration and influenced research and management activities governing the endangered black‐footed ferret (Mustela nigripes) in Wyoming, a canine distemper epizootic in 1985 severely affected a captive breeding program and led to extirpation of the species from the wild. This recent example of the catastrophic effect of epizootic disease in an endangered species is described in an historical context. In addition, examples are given of disease further endangering other rare species, including Mauritius pink pigeon, Père David's deer, cranes, maned wolves, native Hawaiian birak, cheetahs, and others.

An outbreak of malignant catarrhal fever in Père David's deer (Elaphurus davidianus)

Thirteen (54%) of 24 Père David's deer (Eluphurus duvidianus) imported from England died of malignant catarrhal fever (MCF) within a year of arrival at Invermay Agricultural Centre. The duration of clinical illness was from one to approximately 33 days, and the most common clinical signs were depression, a hunched stance and diarrhoea. On post-mortem examination, most deer showed recent localised haemorrhages, often into the large intestine. In all deer there was histological vasculitis especially in the brain.

Oestrous cycles and the breeding season of the Père David's deer hind (Elaphurus davidianus).

Reproductive cycles were studied in a group of tame Père David's deer hinds. The non-pregnant hind is seasonally polyoestrous and, in animals studied over 2 years, the breeding season began in early August (2 August +/- 3.3 days; s.e.m., N = 9) and ended in mid-December (18 December +/- 5.7 days; N = 8) and early January (6 January +/- 3.2 days; N = 11) in consecutive years. During the anoestrous period, plasma progesterone concentrations were low (0.2 +/- 0.01 ng/ml) or non-detectable. There was a small, transient increase in progesterone values before the onset of the first cycle of the breeding season. In daily samples taken during an oestrous cycle in which hinds were mated by a marked vasectomized stag, progesterone concentrations remained low (less than 0.5 ng/ml) for a period of about 6 days around the time of oestrus, showed a significant increase above oestrous levels by Day 4 (Day 0 = day of oestrus) and then continued to increase for 18 +/- 2.8 days to reach mean maximum luteal levels of 3.5 +/- 0.6 ng/ml. The plasma progesterone profiles from a number of animals indicated that marking of the hinds by the vasectomized stag did not occur at each ovulation during the breeding season and therefore an estimate of the cycle length could not be determined by this method. In the following year, detection of oestrus in 5 hinds was based on behavioural observations made in the absence of the stag. A total of 19 oestrous cycles with a mean length of 19.5 +/- 0.6 days was observed.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Zoo behaviour science in the Research Centre for Vertebrate Studies of the Academy of Sciences of the German Democratic Republic (in the Animal Park of Berlin)

This is a report of the results of behaviour science studies in the Animal Park of Berlin and the Academy of Sciences in the German Democratic Republic (G.D.R.). The major goal of this research is to investigate the behaviour of rare animals as a basis for zoological research, systematics and comparative studies in evolution. In addition, further research provided information directly applicable to behavioural management in zoos, farms and wild animal collections. Three main comparative studies dealt with urination and defecation in mammals, allelomimetic behaviour in vertebrates, and audio-visual orientation responses in several species of birds and mammals. Ethograms were created for the Red Woolly Opossum, Maned Wolf, Takin and Giant Eland Antelope. Social and reproductive behaviour studies were conducted on the Wolf, Golden Lion Marmoset, Père David's Deer, Mouflon and Wild Boar. Reports are included on the circadian activity of Pigmy Armadillo and Wild Boar. New information was revealed regarding communication in Mouflon and Père David's Deer, in addition to the new finding that some social behaviour patterns in Wild Boar are dependent on circadian rhythms. Three wolf packs studied consecutively in the same enclosure revealed that each pack differed in its social behaviour and that the dominant female (alpha female) determined the social structure. The problem of animal-human interactions is discussed. Zoos are seen as a medial stage between wilderness and farm management. It is suggested that an important task of zoo behaviour science is to study the ability of wild animals to adapt to purposes such as animal farms, animal husbandry institutes and domestic animal productivity, and to study the behaviour of the original forms of domestic animals in order to better understand and manage them.

Pere david's deer. A revie of the biology and management of an extinct species pere david's deer, edited by Ben Beck and Chris Wemmer. Noyes Publications, 1983, 193 pp, $26.00

Pere david's deer. A revie of the biology and management of an extinct species pere david's deer, edited by Ben Beck and Chris Wemmer. Noyes Publications, 1983, 193 pp, $26.00

Normal haematological values of axis deer (Axis axis),Pere David’s deer (Elaphurus davidianus) and barasingha (Cervus duvauceli)

Full blood counts and fibrinogen estimations were carried out on a number of clinically normal adult axis deer (Axis axis), Père David's deer (Elaphus davidianus) and barasingha (Cervus duvauceli). Apart from the finding of higher total red cell counts and a lower mean red cell volume in axis deer than in Père David's deer and barasingha, there was little interspecies variation. Some individual Père David's deer showed eosinophilia, thought to be associated with subclinical intestinal nematode infestation. The findings should provide a useful reference base for monitoring health in these species.

Observations on social interactions in captive Père David's deer (Elaphurus davidianus)

Social organisation was studied in a herd of Père David's deer (Elaphurus davidianus) at Chester Zoo. Aggression shown by the oldest male to females and younger males occurred throughout the year, but peaked during and just after the rut. Some female aggression to other females was evident throughout the year, and to the younger males just after the rut. Associated sexual behaviour of the males included grass-thrashing with the antlers, roaring and flehmen.

Persistent Right Aortic Arch and Aberrant Left Subclavian Artery in a Pere David's Deer

Persistent Right Aortic Arch and Aberrant Left Subclavian Artery in a Pere David's Deer