Danish Infants Research Articles

Iron supplementation is positively associated with increased serum ferritin levels in 9-month-old Danish infants

Fe deficiency is still common in infancy, even in affluent societies, and has prompted Fe fortification of food products and use of Fe supplements in many populations. In the present study, we tested the hypothesis that Fe status among 9-month-old infants following the Danish Fe supplementation recommendation (>400ml Fe-fortified formula or 8mg Fe/d) is associated with more favourable levels of Fe status indicators compared to those not following the recommendation. A random sample of 9-month-old infants living in Copenhagen was established and 312 healthy term infants were examined at 9·1 (sd 0·3) months of age. Blood samples were available from 278 infants. Overall, twenty infants (7·8%) had Fe deficiency (serum ferritin<12μg/l) and <1% had Fe deficiency anaemia (serum ferritin<12μg/l and Hb<100g/l). Serum ferritin was positively associated with birth weight (P<0·001), intake of fortified formula and follow-on formula (P=0·001), and female sex (P<0·001). Cow's milk intake and length of exclusive breast-feeding were negatively associated with Hb levels (P=0·013 and P<0·001). Serum ferritin levels were significantly higher (P<0·0001) and transferrin receptor (TfR) was significantly lower (P=0·003) among infants (n 188) meeting the Fe supplementation recommendation compared to those (n 67) not meeting the recommendation. No significant difference between these two groups was found for Hb. In conclusion, this study confirmed that Fe status of infants following the Danish Fe supplementation recommendation was significantly associated with increased serum ferritin and decreased levels of TfR indicating more favourable Fe status, compared to infants not following the recommendation.

Economic evaluation of a 100% whey-based partially hydrolyzed infant formula in the prevention of atopic dermatitis among Danish children

Objective:A pharmacoeconomic analysis was undertaken to determine costs, consequences, and cost-effectiveness of a brand of partially hydrolyzed 100%-whey formula manufactured by Nestlé (PHF-W), in the prevention of atopic dermatitis (AD) in ‘at risk’ Danish children compared to extensively hydrolyzed formula (EHF-Whey or Casein).Methods:Given the non-significant differences between PHF-W and EHF, the base case analytic approach amounted to a cost-minimization analysis (CMA) reporting the difference in formula acquisition costs over the period of formula consumption for the population of interest. However, sensitivity analyses (SAs) were undertaken to explore applying the nominal efficacy of PHF-W and EHF, thus leading to a cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA). Hence, an economic model based on a 12-month time horizon was developed synthesizing treatment pathways, resource utilization, and costs associated with the treatment of AD in the population of interest. The final economic outcome of the SAs was the incremental cost per avoided case (ICER) defined as the expected cost per avoided case of AD for PHF-W vs EHF, determined from three perspectives: the Ministry of Health (MOH), the family of the subject, and society (SOC).Results:In the base case CMA, savings of DKK 9 M, DKK 20 M, and DKK 29 M were generated for PHF-W vs EHF from the MOH, family, and SOC perspectives. In the sensitivity CEA, PHF-W was dominant over EHF-Whey from all perspectives, while EHF-Casein displayed against PHF-W unattractive ICERs of DKK 315,930, DKK 408,407, and DKK 724,337 from the MOH, family, and SOC perspectives. Probabilistic SAs indicated that PHF-W was 86% likely to be dominant over EHF-Whey, whereas EHF-Casein had no likelihood of dominating PHF-W.Conclusion:Under a range of assumptions, this analysis demonstrated the attractiveness of PHF-W vs both types of EHF in the prevention of AD among ‘at risk’ Danish infants who are not or cannot be exclusively breastfed.

Molecular Fingerprints of the Human Fecal Microbiota From 9 to 18 Months Old and the Effect of Fish Oil Supplementation

The aim of this study was to monitor changes in the fecal microbiota from 9 to 18 months and to investigate the effect of increasing dietary n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on the fecal microbiota. In a double-blind controlled trial with random allocation to daily supplementation with 5 mL of fish oil (FO) or sunflower oil (SO) from 9 to 18 months of age, stool samples were collected from 132 healthy Danish infants. Molecular fingerprints of the bacterial DNA were obtained by terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism (T-RFLP). The T-RFLP profiles indicated that a few T-RFs became dominant with age (bp100 and 102, both presumed to be Bacteroidetes) concomitantly with an overall increase in the microbial diversity (P = 0.04). Breast-feeding influenced both the T-RFLP profiles at 9 months and the changes from 9 to 18 months, and breast-feeding cessation during the trial modified the response to the dietary oils. In the FO group, the increase in bp102 was significantly reduced among children weaned before compared with those weaned during the trial (P = 0.027), whereas the increase in bp100 was reduced in the preweaned children of the SO group relative to those weaned during the trial (P = 0.004). This was supported by intervention group differences in the changes in bp102 and bp100 among the earlier weaned children (P = 0.06 and P = 0.09, respectively). Cessation of breast-feeding played a dominant role relative to developmental changes in the fecal microbiota from 9 to 18 months. FO compared with SO supplementation affected changes in large bacterial groups, but only among children who had stopped breast-feeding before 9 months of age.

Clinical effects of chiropractic on infantile colic

Wiberg KR, Wiberg JMM. A retrospective study of chiropractic treatment of 276 Danish infants with infantile colic. J Manipulative Physiol Ther 2010; 33: 536–41.

Diffuse lung disease in Danish infants: application of the ChILD classification system

Diffuse lung disease in Danish infants: application of the ChILD classification system

IGF-I and IGFBP-3 in healthy 9 month old infants from the SKOT cohort: Breastfeeding, diet, and later obesity

BackgroundHigh IGF-I concentrations in infancy have been associated with later obesity but the interactions between diet, IGF-I concentrations and growth in early life are complex and involve programming of the IGF-I axis. ObjectiveThis paper examines how IGF-I and IGFBP-3 concentrations measured at age 9months are related to diet and growth in infancy. DesignIn the Danish SKOT cohort healthy term infants were included at age 9months with follow-up at age 18months. Total 252 infants had a full data set and were included in the analysis. Measurements include weight, length, skinfold thickness, waist circumference, 7-d food records, and blood analysis of IGF-I, and IGFBP-3. ResultsInfants not being breastfed at 9months of age (46%) had higher median IGF-I concentration than breastfed infants (51.6 vs. 44.2ng/mL, P=0.0005) and there was a negative dose response effect of daily numbers of breastfeedings on IGF-I concentration. IGF-I concentration was negatively associated with birth weight and positively related to increase in weight, length and BMI between birth and 9months. Between 9months and 18months of age increase in length was positively and increase in BMI was negatively related to IGF-I concentration. ConclusionBreastfeeding has a strong negative effect on IGF-I concentrations in late infancy. Although IGF-I concentrations at 9months of age were negatively associated with change in BMI during the following 9months we speculate that this could reflect an early adiposity rebound and thereby an increased risk of obesity later in life.

Determinants of blood glucose and insulin in healthy 9‐month‐old term Danish infants; the SKOT cohort

Insulin secretion is important for early regulation of growth, but high insulin concentration is also a risk factor for insulin resistance later in life. It is therefore important to better understand how insulin and glucose are associated with early diet and growth. The aim of this study was to examine blood glucose and insulin concentration in relation to anthropometric measurements, growth, breastfeeding practice and complementary feeding in 9-month-old infants. This was a cross-sectional study (SKOT cohort), examining 312 healthy term infants from the age of 9 months. Of these, 265 infants had data on insulin and glucose and were included in this study. Measurements include weight, length, skinfold thickness, waist circumference, 7-day food records, 2-h fasting venous glucose and insulin analysis, and questionnaire. At 9 months of age there was a strong negative association between number of breastfeedings per day and insulin concentration (P=0.0015). Insulin concentration was positively associated to waist circumference (P=0.042) and change in Z-score for weight-for-age between 5 and 9 months (P=0.004). Glucose concentration was positively associated to subscapular skinfold (P=0.002) and sum of skinfolds thicknesses (P=0.006). At 9 months, breastfeeding still had a strong negative effect on insulin concentrations, which were positively associated with weight gain and current waist circumference, while glucose concentrations were associated with subcutaneous fat. These results are of interest in disentangling the association between early growth and later risk of disease.

432 Effect of Infants' Position on Serum Bilirubin Level During Concentional Phototherapy

Background: Alternating exposure of front and back of infants during phototherapy is widely practiced.Aim: Compare rate of decline in total serum bilirubin concentration (TSB) during phototherapy in infants treated in supine position throughout versus infants alternating between supine and prone position every 3 h. Further, survey current practice in two Scandinavian countries.Methods: 112 infants with gestational age above 32 weeks, healthy except for non-haemolytic hyperbilirubinaemia, were randomised to one of the treatment groups. TSB was measured at start-up and after 12 and 24 h of therapy. Transcutaneous bilirubin concentration (TcB) was measured midsternum in a subgroup of 10 infants including both groups. A questionnaire about routines for position changes during phototherapy was send to all 41 neonatal departments in Denmark and Norway.Results: No significant differences in decline of TSB were observed between the two treatment groups: After 12 h of therapy TSB had decreased 32% in both groups and after 24 h 49% and 50%, respectively. TcB decreased rapidly during the first 150 min of treatment and approached a plateau at 35% of the initial level. In two thirds of Danish and Norwegian departments infants were routinely turned during phototherapy, most often every 3rd h.Conclusion: No difference in the decrease of TSB was observed wheather the infants were turned during phtotherapy or treated in supine position throughout. An explanation for this lack of effect of turning infants might be that photobilirubins are mainly produced in the intravascular space. Alternating exposure during phototherapy is widely practiced in Scandinavia.

A Retrospective Study of Chiropractic Treatment of 276 Danish Infants With Infantile Colic

Objectives The aim of this study was to investigate if the outcome of excessively crying infants treated with chiropractic manipulation (1) was associated with age and/or (2), at least partially, can be explained by age according to the natural decline in crying. Methods This was a retrospective evaluation of clinical records of 749 infants from a private Danish chiropractic practice. All of the infants were healthy, thriving infants born to term within the age of 0 to 3 months who fulfilled the diagnostic criteria for excessively crying infants (infantile colic), whose parents sought chiropractic treatment. The infants were treated using chiropractic management as decided by the treating doctor of chiropractic, and changes in crying based upon the parents' report were noted as improved, uncertain, or nonrecovered. Age predictor groups were cross-tabulated against the outcome variables, and difference between classification groups was tested with χ 2 tables and confidence intervals. Results Slightly older age was found to be linked to excessively crying infants who experienced clinical improvement. However, no apparent link between the clinical effect of chiropractic treatment and a natural decline in crying was found for this group of infants. Conclusion The findings of this study do not support the assumption that effect of chiropractic treatment of infantile colic is a reflection of the normal cessation of this disorder.

Evidence of Bordetella pertussis infection in vaccinated 1-year-old Danish children

We measured IgA and IgG antibodies to pertussis toxin (PT) and filamentous hemagglutinin (FHA) in sera from 203 1-year-old children who had received one to three doses of a monocomponent PT toxoid vaccine. Ten children (5%) had IgA antibody to PT indicating recent infection; seven of these children had received three doses of vaccine. PT IgA responders did not have significantly longer coughing episodes than PT IgA non-responders. Since an IgA antibody response occurs in only ∼50% of infected children, the actual infection rate in our cohort is estimated to ∼10%. The apparent high Bordetella pertussis infection rate in Danish infants suggests that the monocomponent PT toxoid vaccine used in Denmark has limited efficacy against B. pertussis infection. A prospective immunization study comparing a multi-component vaccine with the present monocomponent PT toxoid vaccine should be undertaken.

POPULATION BASED EXTERNAL VALIDATION OF A EUROPEAN PREDICTIVE MODEL FOR RESPIRATORY SYNCYTIAL VIRUS HOSPITALIZATION OF PREMATURE INFANTS BORN 33 TO 35 WEEKS OF GESTATIONAL AGE

Prospectively collected population-based data on 2529 Danish infants born at 33 to 35 weeks of gestation were used to validate an European predictive model of respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) hospitalization. The model was found to be robust with a diagnostic accuracy of 65.9% to distinguish between RSV-hospitalized versus non-RSV-hospitalized Danish infants born at 33 to 35 weeks of gestation.

The Effect of Fish Oil Supplementation on Heart rate in Healthy Danish Infants

Polyunsaturated n-3 fatty acids (n-3PUFA) may improve brain development and prevent cardiovascular disease. Heart rhythm is autonomically controlled and among the affected cardiovascular risk markers in adults. The aim of the study was to examine whether fish oil supplementation in late infancy could modify heart rate (HR) and heart rate variability (HRV). In a 2 x 2-intervention, 83 healthy Danish infants were randomized to +/- fish oil (3.4 +/- 1.1 mL/d) and cow's milk or infant formula from 9 to 12 mo of age. In 57 infants, 0.5-h ECG recordings were successfully obtained before and after the intervention and erythrocyte fatty acid composition was determined in 30 of these. Fish oil supplementation raised erythrocyte n-3PUFA content (p < 0.001). No significant group differences were seen in HR or HRV. However, a fish-oil x gender interaction was observed on mean RR interval (p = 0.001) with a 6% longer mean RR interval in fish-oil-supplemented boys (p = 0.007). Irrespective of gender, there was a positive association between the 9- and 12-mo changes in RR interval and erythrocyte n-3PUFA (p < 0.001). In infants with confirmed changes in erythrocyte n-3PUFA, mean RR interval was found to be longer (p = 0.011) in the fish-oil-supplemented groups. The study suggests that fish oil may affect heart rhythm in infants similar to that observed in adults. This may imply low n-3PUFA-status in late infancy and n-3PUFA influence on CNS function.

Clinical and Epidemiologic Characteristics of Human Bocavirus in Danish Infants

Human bocavirus (HBoV) is a recently discovered parvovirus that has been detected in respiratory samples from children with acute respiratory tract infection (ARTI) and in feces from children with gastroenteritis. However, its role as a causative agent of respiratory disease is not determined. We investigated the presence of HBoV by real-time polymerase-chain reaction of nasal swab specimens obtained from 228 healthy children followed in the community from birth to 1 year of age for a 2-year period from 2004 to 2006. Nasal swabs and symptom diaries were collected at monthly home visits. HBoV was detected in 57 (8.2%) of 697 nasal swab specimens from children with ARTI, in 1 (2.3%) of 44 swabs from children with diarrhea, and in 13 (8.6%) of 152 swabs from asymptomatic children. HBoV was present mainly during the winter months. An additional respiratory virus was identified in 27 (47.4%) HBoV-positive samples. Thirty-four (68%) of 50 children with ARTI shed HBoV for less than 1 month, 13 (26%) for 2 months, 2 (4%) for 3 months, and 1 (2%) for 4 months. Seven asymptomatic children shed HBoV for less than 1 month, 2 children for 2 months, and 1 asymptomatic child had 5 HBoV-positive nasal swabs detected for 6 consecutive months. HBoV infection was associated with maternal smoking, being born in the winter, and predisposition to asthma. Asymptomatic carriage of HBoV is common in infants <1 year of age, and an HBoV-positive test result does not imply that HBoV is the cause of the illness.

Perfluoroalkane Acids and Fetal Growth

In the November issue of Environmental Health Perspectives, Apelberg et al. (2007) reported an inverse relationship between umbilical cord blood concentrations of perfluorooctanoate (PFOA) and perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and ponderal index and head circumference in children delivered vaginally in Baltimore, Maryland. In the same issue, Fei et al. (2007) reported an inverse relationship between first trimester maternal blood PFOA (but not PFOS) concentration and birth weight in Danish infants born to normal-weight women. Although these studies do not necessarily support one another (Fei et al. also collected cord blood but did not report these results), they raise the important question of whether low-level exposure to perfluoroalkane acids might affect fetal growth. In both articles, the authors called attention to the inconsistency between these findings and those in experimental animal studies, in which fetal growth effects occur only at blood concentrations several orders of magnitude higher than were measured in human umbilical cord or maternal blood. The question was reasonably posed by both groups whether a confounder could be responsible for the observed associations. The Baltimore group (Apelberg et al. 2007) identified two candidate confounders that may explain their findings: diet and plasma volume. Perfluoroalkanesulfonamides, which may be metabolized to PFOS, have been used in grease- and water-repellant packaging for foods, particularly pizza, french fries, and other fried foods. The Canadian Total Diet Study (Tittlemier et al. 2006) detected perfluoroalkanesulfonamides in all foods tested, but the highest concentrations were found in pizza, microwave popcorn, egg breakfast sandwiches, french fries, chicken nuggets, and fish burgers. Fluorotelomer alcohols, which can be converted to the corresponding alkane acids, have been used in coatings for paper, including microwave popcorn bags. 8-2 Fluorotelomer alcohol can be converted atmospherically and metabolically to PFOA, and gavage treatment of pregnant mice with 8-2 fluorotelomer alcohol results in the appearance of PFOA in fetuses (Henderson and Smith 2007). Both 8-2 fluorotelomer alcohol and PFOA have been found in popcorn bags and in the vapor produced after cooking microwave popcorn (Begley et al. 2005; Sinclair et al. 2007). The pregnancies studied by Fei et al. (2007) occurred in 1996–2002, a period during which perfluorinated compounds were commonly used in fast-food packaging. The use of perfluorinated compounds in food packaging decreased some years before 2004–2005, the study period of Apelberg et al. (2007); however, PFOS and PFOA have long half-lives and may still have been present as markers of a high intake of fast-food. A high intake of fast food may in turn be a marker of poor nutrition. The Danish National Birth Cohort (Fei et al. 2007) included a food frequency questionnaire. It would be interesting to know if a relationship between nutrition and maternal blood perfluoroalkane acid concentration was detected. PFOA and PFOS repel fat and are distributed in body water, particularly plasma. Women with a reduced plasma or body water volumes would distribute the same body burden of perfluoroalkane acids in a smaller space, producing higher perfluoroalkane acid concentrations. Fat-free body mass and total body water volumes are important predictors of birth weight (Butte et al. 2003; Lederman et al. 1999; Mardones-Santander et al. 1998; Sanin Aguirre et al. 2004), giving rise to the possibility that higher maternal blood (and therefore fetal blood) concentrations of PFOS and PFOA are markers of reduced plasma or total body water volumes, producing an apparent inverse association between the perfluoroalkane acid concentrations and fetal growth. A reasonable next step in addressing the question of whether perfluoroalkane acids (at current human blood concentrations) play a role in fetal growth will be studies in which maternal nutrition and body composition, as opposed to body weight, are considered as possible confounders.

Maintainance vs. “loss” of the perceptual bias favoring natural reference vowels

Previous infant vowel discrimination studies (Polka &amp; Bohn, 2003) have shown that babies are perceptually biased to favor vowels with more extreme articulations such that a change from a more peripheral vowel (“natural reference vowel” - NRV) to a vowel located more centrally in the vowel space is less discriminable than a change presented in the reverse direction. Recent studies of adult vowel perception suggest that the universal bias favoring NRVs is maintained in the absence of specific language experience and but “lost” if native or non-native language experience causes a reset of the perceptual default favoring NRVs. This presentation reports on vowel discrimination experiments which examined whether absence or presence of specific vowel experience is related to maintenance or loss of this perceptual bias in Danish infants (age 6-12 months). For two Danish vowel contrasts, asymmetries were observed for younger infants, but not for infants older than 10 months. For an English vowel contrast that does not exist in Danish, the asymmetry was maintained in infants up to 12 months and in adult Danish listeners. Results confirm the assumption that the perceptual bias favoring NRVs is maintained throughout the lifespan unless specific vowel experience causes on override. [Work supported by the Danish Research Council for the Humanities.]

Treatment for Retinopathy of Prematurity in Denmark in a Ten-Year Period (1996–2005): Is the Incidence Increasing?

The objective of this study was to analyze the population incidence of retinopathy of prematurity treatment in Denmark in the 10-year period from 1996 to 2005. Patient charts of infants treated for retinopathy of prematurity and the national birth registry provide information about neonatal parameters. These parameters, along with birth in the latter half of the period (2001-2005), were analyzed as risk factors for retinopathy of prematurity. The national registry for blind and visually impaired children was accessed to obtain information about visual impairment attributable to retinopathy of prematurity in both treated and untreated infants. The study population consisted of 5467 Danish preterm infants born in 1996 to 2005, with a gestational age of < 32 weeks, who survived for > or = 5 postnatal weeks; 2616 were born in 1996 to 2000, and 2851 were born in 2001 to 2005. The incidence of treated retinopathy of prematurity cases increased significantly from 1.3% in 1996 to 2000 to 3.5% in 2001 to 2005. Significant risk factors for retinopathy of prematurity treatment were low gestational age, small for gestational age, male gender, and multiple birth. Other, yet unknown factors contributed to the increased incidence in the latter half of the period. Of the study population, 0.6% were registered as visually impaired because of retinopathy of prematurity within 2 years after birth (early-detected visual impairment). The incidences were not significantly different between 1996 to 2000 and 2001 to 2005. Of all of the early-detected, visually impaired children, 16% had not been treated for retinopathy of prematurity and were considered screening failures. The incidence of retinopathy of prematurity treatment in Denmark has more than doubled during the past half-decade. This increase could not be fully explained by increased survival rates for the infants or by changes in the investigated neonatal risk factors.

Concentrations of persistent organochlorine compounds in human milk and placenta are higher in Denmark than in Finland

A significantly reduced male reproductive health status, including a higher prevalence of cryptorchidism and hypospadias, has been documented in Danish men compared with Finnish men. Exposure to environmental pollutants with endocrine disrupting activities has been suggested as a possible contributing factor. In this study, we investigated whether there was a difference in milk and placental concentrations of persistent organohalogen compounds, between the two countries. Organohalogens were analysed by high-resolution gas chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry in human milk samples from Finland (n = 65) and Denmark (n = 65) and in placentas from Finland (n = 112) and Denmark (n = 168). 1,1-dichloro-2,2-bis(4-chlorophenyl)ethane (p,p'-DDE) was the dominant pollutant. beta-Hexa-chloro-cyclohexane (beta-HCH), hexachlorobenzene (HCB), endosulfan-I, dieldrin, oxychlordane (OXC), cis-heptachloroepoxide (c-HE) and 1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis(4-chlorophenyl)ethane (p,p'-DDT) were the other main organochlorines detected. Danish samples had significantly higher concentrations of p,p'-DDE, p,p'-DDT, beta-HCH, HCB, dieldrin, c-HE and OXC than did the Finnish samples. Levels of organobrominated compounds were very low and most were undetectable in the majority of samples. BB-153 and BB-155 were the most abundant polybromobiphenyl congeners. BB-153 was more abundant in Danish milk samples compared with Finnish samples, whereas BB-155 was more abundant in the Finnish milk. The organochlorine levels were higher in Danish, than in Finnish, samples, suggesting a higher exposure for Danish infants.

Failure to thrive: the prevalence and concurrence of anthropometric criteria in a general infant population

. Olsen, E. M., Petersen, J., Skovgaard, A. M., Weile, B., Jørgensen, T. &amp; Wright, C. M. ( 2007 ) , 92 , 109 – 114 . DOI: 10.1136/adc.2005.080333. Background Failure to thrive (FTT) in early childhood is associated with subsequent developmental delay and is recognized to reflect relative undernutrition. Although the concept of FTT is widely used, no consensus exists regarding a specific definition, and it is unclear to what extent different anthropometric definitions concur.Objective To compare the prevalence and concurrence of different anthropometric criteria for FTT and test the sensitivity and positive predictive values of these in detecting children with ‘significant undernutrition’, defined as the combination of slow conditional weight gain and low body mass index (BMI).Methods Seven criteria of FTT, including low weight for age, low BMI, low conditional weight gain and Waterlow's criterion for wasting, were applied to a birth cohort of 6090 Danish infants. The criteria were compared in two age groups: 2–6 and 6–11 months of life.Results In total, 27% of infants met one or more criteria in at least one of the two age groups. The concurrence among the criteria was generally poor, with most children identified by only one criterion. Positive predictive values of different criteria ranged from 1% to 58%. Most single criteria either identified less than half the cases of significant undernutrition (found in 3%) or included far too many, thus having a low positive predictive value. Children with low weight for height tended to be relatively tall.Conclusions No single measurement on its own seems to be adequate for identifying nutritional growth delay. Further longitudinal population studies are needed to investigate the discriminating power of different criteria in detecting significant undernutrition and subsequent outcomes.

Fish Oil Supplementation Modulates Immune Function in Healthy Infants

(n-3) PUFA influence immune function in adults and may also affect immune maturation during development. This randomized trial is, to our knowledge, the first to investigate whether fish oil supplementation in late infancy modifies immune responses. The study was a 2 × 2 intervention in 64 healthy Danish infants, who received cow’s milk or infant formula alone or with fish oil (FO) (3.4 ± 1.1 mL/d) from 9 to 12 mo of age. Before and after the intervention, fatty acid composition of erythrocyte membranes, plasma IgE, C-reactive protein, and soluble IL-2 receptor concentrations were measured. TNF-α, INF-γ, and IL-10 concentrations in whole-blood cultures, stimulated for 22 h with LPS+phytohemaglutinin (PHA) or Lactobacillus paracasei, were also determined. IgA was measured in feces when infants were 10 mo of age. FO supplementation effectively raised erythrocyte (n-3) PUFA (P < 0.001), increased L. paracasei-induced INF-γ (P = 0.05) and tended to reduce LPS+PHA-induced IL-10 (P = 0.08). The FO intervention did not affect any of the other analyzed immune variables. The erythrocyte content of eicosapentanoic acid was negatively associated with LPS+PHA-induced IL-10 (r = −0.38, P = 0.02). Feeding milk rather than formula did not affect cytokine production, but plasma soluble IL-2 receptor concentration was greater in the formula group than in the cow’s milk group (P = 0.03). Since the capacity to produce INF-γ has been proposed as a maturation marker for the immune system in early life, this study suggests a faster immune maturation with FO supplementation with no apparent reduction in immune activation. The implications for later health need further investigation.

SPROGLIG RELATIVISME: Hvordan og hvornår kommer den til udtryk i ontogenesen?

The paper is a theoretical and empirical contribution to the debate regarding the principle&#x0D; of language relativity in relation to ontogenesis. In the first part of the paper it is argued&#x0D; that the division between universal knowledge and culture-specific knowledge which is&#x0D; present in the new discipline of cognitive science is based on a false dichotomy. This&#x0D; has led to the ignorance of the complementary contributions that anthropology and&#x0D; developmental psychology may offer for the investigation of different human knowledge&#x0D; systems. The status quo regarding recent empirical evidence that demonstrates how&#x0D; language effects cognition is then presented and discussed in terms of ecological validity.&#x0D; The second part of the paper presents results from a recent cross-cultural and crosslinguistic&#x0D; study that demonstrates the early effect of language on cognition. The study&#x0D; investigates Danish (Scandinavian) and Zapotec (Mexican indigenous) infants’ spatial&#x0D; cognition with respect to whether this is influenced by the specific linguistic structure of&#x0D; each of the two languages. The results show that the two groups of children performed&#x0D; in different, language-specific ways to the presented spatial task. Danish children&#x0D; expressed a preference for imitating the behaviour of placing one object inside a another&#x0D; object, whereas the Zapotec children were equally apt to place the respective objects in&#x0D; an occlusive relationship. The results are discussed with regard to whether they give&#x0D; support to the Whorfian hypothesis or to the notion of cultural relativity, as reflected in&#x0D; the work of Vygotsky.&#x0D;