Dairy Farms In China Research Articles

Review: Challenges and prospects for milk production in China after the 2008 milk scandal

The primary objectives of this review were to characterize the challenges faced by China’s milk industry after the milk scandal of 2008 and to propose prospects for the future. This review is supported by data and information from the literature, various statistical yearbooks and databases, administration documents, news reports, and the authors’ own investigations. After the milk scandal and the resulting decline in the number of dairy cows in China, more recently annual milk production has come to the end of a rapid growth period. Importing large quantities of dairy products, especially milk powder, has affected domestic milk production. The high cost of milk production in China is the key reason for the lack of market competitiveness for milk within the country. Dairy farms are facing stricter environmental protection requirements, which have become an important economic constraint for future dairy farming development. In the transition from small-scale to large-scale (100 or more cows per farm) dairy farms in China, more 10,000-cow farms have emerged, which has triggered a debate about the size of dairy farms. Although China’s milk production is facing some challenges, the continuous improvement of consumers’ income, the formation of milk drinking habits, and governmental support have developed a large market potential for domestically produced dairy products and milk production. Improving market competitiveness while ensuring economic and environmental sustainability are key to the future prospects for China’s milk industry. The characterization and discussion of the past, current, and potential dairy industry in China is intended to enhance understanding for dairy farmers, dairy enterprises, and the government to positively and significantly adjust the strategies for the dairy industry. Future research needs to address the effects of different organizational forms of dairy enterprises and dairy farmers on milk production in China.

Corn silage quality index: An index combining milk yield, silage nutritional and fermentation parameters

Development of indexes based on milk yield of lactating dairy cows fed corn silage-based diets combined with silage quality parameters can provide clear guidance to assess the overall quality of corn silage produced. This study was done to determine the most important minimum number of silage quality parameters for corn silage quality evaluation among commonly used parameters for nutritional and fermentation quality and to develop an integrated corn silage quality index (CSQI) using standard scoring functions and weighting assignment. Principal component analysis (PCA) and multiple regression analysis (MRA) were used to select the most important silage quality parameters and to assign parameter weights, whereas standard scoring functions were used to normalize silage quality parameters. A variety of corn silage samples (n = 390) representing spatial and seasonal heterogeneity, were collected from 195 intensive dairy farms in China and analyzed for 16 frequently used chemical and fermentation parameters. Concurrent with silage sampling, average daily milk yield respective to each silage was collected from 50 mid-lactating dairy cows fed corn silage-based diets (i.e., 39–48 % DM corn silage in TMR) and used as the dependent variable in MRA. The silage quality parameters used in developing the index were; digestible NDF after 30-h in vitro incubation (g/kg NDF), and concentrations (DM basis) of starch, crude protein, ether extract, ammonia, and lactic acid. The CSQI was developed by summing normalized and weighted quality parameters. The CSQI was subsequently converted to corn silage quality scores (CSQS, 0–100). Based on the CSQS, silages were grouped into five quality grades; poor, fair, average, good and excellent having grade mean index score of 51, 62, 69, 78 and 89. The new indexes were evaluated against observed daily milk yield measurements and Milk2006 milk yield estimates. The CSQS were found to be positively correlated with observed daily milk yield measurements and Milk2006 index. The linear relationship between MRA based CSQS and observed daily milk yield measurement was higher than that of the relationship between PCA based CSQS and Milk2006 index (R2 = 0.72 vs. 0.60). Further, accuracy and precision of predicting milk yield by MRA based CSQI were higher than those of the PCA based CSQI against both observed daily milk yield measurements and Milk2006 index based on corn silage quality. Thus, among the two multivariate approaches, the MRA based CSQI method was a more accurate method for predicting performance between corn silage of different qualities.

Spatial–temporal analysis of the comparative advantages of dairy farming: Taking 18 provinces or municipalities in China as an example

High cost and low milk yield per dairy cow are current problems mainly faced by dairy farms in China. Thus, optimizing the regional layout and integrating the advantages to enhance the competitiveness of dairy farming in China is necessary. However, existing studies on comparative advantage analysis of dairy breeding have a relatively single perspective. Therefore, comprehensively identifying the advantage area of dairy farming is difficult. This study established a comprehensive evaluation model of the comparative advantages of dairy farming considering basic, technical, economic, and feed resource indexes using linear weighted and entropy weight methods. On this basis, the spatial–temporal analysis of the comprehensive evaluation on comparative advantages of dairy farming from 2013 to 2017 was performed using Geographic Information System(GIS). Finally, the advantage areas of dairy farming were identified. Results demonstrated that the highest average comprehensive evaluation value was 0.6017 in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, followed by 0.5355 in Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region and 0.1786 in Anhui Province. Furthermore, the advantage areas of dairy farming were identified including Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, Beijing Municipality, Heilongjiang Province, Shanghai Municipality, Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, Tianjin Municipality, Liaoning Province, Shanxi Province and Ningxia Hui Autonomous These findings provide references for the spatial layout of dairy farming, spatial allocation of production resources, and sustainable development of animal husbandry.

Molecular characteristics and antibiotic susceptibility profiles of Mycoplasma bovis associated with mastitis on dairy farms in China

Mycoplasma bovis (M. bovis) is regarded as the most prevalent mycoplasma species causing bovine mastitis worldwide. This study was conducted with the objectives to: (1) estimate M. bovis prevalence in samples from clinical mastitis and bulk tank milk; (2) assess genetic diversity and population structure of isolates; and (3) determine antibiotic susceptibility of isolates to nine antimicrobials. Milk samples (n = 476), including 450 clinical mastitis and 26 bulk tank milk samples from 23 farms (each with >1000 lactating cows) in 10 provinces of China were collected between May 2018 and September 2019. M. bovis cultured from milk samples were analyzed by multi-locus sequence typing. Minimum inhibitory concentrations of all isolates to nine antimicrobials were determined. Differences in minimum inhibitory concentration values were assessed by Kruskal-Wallis test with Bonferroni correction. The positive proportions of M. bovis in clinical mastitis samples and bulk tank milk samples were 39/450 (8.7%) and 11/26 (42.3%), respectively. Based on multi-locus sequence typing, the 50 isolates were identified as three sequence types, including sequence type 10 and two novel sequence types (newly registered as sequence type 172 and sequence type 173). The most prevalent type, sequence type 172 (31/50, 62.0%), had allelic profile 4, 3, 2, 3, 5, 7, 4. In addition, sequence type 10 with allelic profile 4, 3, 2, 3, 5, 3, 4 had a mid-range prevalence (11/50, 22.0%), whereas sequence type 173 with allelic profile 10, 3, 6, 13, 21, 6, 10 was the least prevalent (8/50, 16.0%). Both sequence type 10 and sequence type 172 were clustered in Clonal Complex 3, with isolates from the USA. M. bovis isolates in this study uniformly had low level minimum inhibitory concentrations to enrofloxacin and tiamulin. Overall variances among isolates were significant (Kruskal-Wallis test) for clindamycin (P = 0.006), erythromycin (P = 0.012) and tylosin (P =0.004). Relative to the sequence type 10 group, there were higher minimum inhibitory concentrations levels for the sequence type 173 group (H = -19.795, P = 0.003, for clindamycin; H = -19.574, P = 0.003, for erythromycin; and H = -18.881, P = 0.003, for tylosin) by post-hoc comparisons using pairwise comparisons of mean ranks following Kruskal-Wallis test with Bonferroni correction. Hence, increasing antimicrobial resistance may have contributed to emergence of novel sequence types. These data provided a baseline for elucidating genetic diversity and antibiotic susceptibility profiles of M. bovis in the main dairy-farming provinces in China.

The prevalence of pathogens causing bovine mastitis and their associated risk factors in 15 large dairy farms in China: An observational study

The primary objective of this study was to determine the distribution of major pathogens causing mastitis and analyze the association of the main pathogens with the type of milk {milk samples collected from cows with mastitis of different severities, which consisted of subclinical mastitis (Lanzhou Mastitis Test weak positive, positive, and strong positive) and clinical mastitis}, region, season, bedding material, parity and lactation stage on large dairy farms. Fifteen large dairy farms in twelve major milk-producing provinces of China were enrolled in the study for approximately one year; 1,153 mastitis milk samples were collected and processed. The most frequently isolated pathogens were Staphylococcus spp. (39.03 %), Streptococcus spp. (11.01 %), Bacillus spp. (8.24 %), Aerococcus viridans (6.76 %), and Acinetobacter spp. (3.38 %), and most of these pathogens were environmental bacteria (67.53 %). Contagious pathogens (Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus agalactiae) were more prevalent in milk samples from bovine clinical mastitis cases than in milk samples from bovine subclinical mastitis cases. The percentages of Staphylococcus spp. and Bacillus spp. might be higher in northeastern farms than in farms located in other regions. A higher percentage of Staphylococcus spp. was observed in summer, while a lower proportion of Streptococcus spp. was detected in fall. Streptococcus agalactiae and Streptococcus uberis were more frequently isolated in farms using sand bedding, whereas Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus haemolyticus and Bacillus licheniformis were more prevalent in farms using organic bedding. No obvious associations were found between the main mastitis pathogens and parity or lactation stage. Based on these findings, the dominant pathogens, types of milk, regions, seasons and bedding materials should be considered when designing mastitis prevention and control programs at large Chinese dairy farms.

Prevalence, etiology, and economic impact of clinical mastitis on large dairy farms in China

This study investigated the continuous monthly prevalence of bovine clinical mastitis (CM) and the distribution of causative pathogens among 36,619 CM milk samples from large dairy farms across seven Chinese provinces from 2015 to 2017 using data from routine CM recording systems. Based on treatment period and cost per cow, withdrawal period, daily milk production, and milk value data from each farm in 2017, we calculated the economic impact of CM at the farm level with 2578–9044 lactating cows per farm. Results showed a wide variation in monthly prevalence of CM (0.6 %–18.2 %) among the seven farms over the study period, indicating regional and temporal differences in the occurrence of CM in China. Enterobacteriaceae were the predominant pathogens across all farms from six provinces except Shandong, in which the Streptococcus spp. was the most prevalent. However, the distribution of various Enterobacteriaceae species differed among farms, and Streptococcus species distribution was strongly associated (Pearson’s coefficient, 68.4 %) with location. Monthly economic losses associated with CM showed clear variation, ranging from 12,000–76,000 USD/farm/month. Sensitivity analysis showed that economic loss at the farm level was most sensitive to variation in the prevalence of CM, followed by antibiotic treatment period and daily milk production per cow. To our knowledge, this is the longest running study of CM and the first estimation of its economic impacts in China. Our findings highlight the considerable costs associated with mastitis, and indicate that preventive measures and regional and timely treatment of CM are needed.

Corn stover usage and farm profit for sustainable dairy farming in China.

ObjectiveThis study determined the optimal ratio of whole plant corn silage (WPCS) to corn stover (stems+leaves) silage (CSS) (WPCS:CSS) to reach the greatest profit of dairy farmers and evaluated its consequences with corn available for other purposes, enteric methane production and milk nitrogen efficiency (MNE) at varying milk production levels.MethodsAn optimization model was developed. Chemical composition, rumen undegradable protein and metabolizable energy (ME) of WPCS and CSS from 4 cultivars were determined to provide data for the model.ResultsAt production levels of 0, 10, 20, and 30 kg milk/cow/d, the WPCS:CSS to maximize the profit of dairy farmers was 16:84, 22:78, 44:56, and 88:12, respectively, and the land area needed to grow corn plants was 4.5, 31.4, 33.4, and 30.3 ha, respectively. The amount of corn available (ton DM/ha/yr) for other purposes saved from this land area decreased with higher producing cows. However, compared with high producing cows (30 kg/d milk), more low producing cows (10 kg/d milk) and more land area to grow corn and soybeans was needed to produce the same total amount of milk. Extra land is available to grow corn for a higher milk production, leading to more corn available for other purposes. Increasing ME content of CSS decreased the land area needed, increased the profit of dairy farms and provided more corn available for other purposes. At the optimal WPCS:CSS, MNE and enteric methane production was greater, but methane production per kg milk was lower, for high producing cows.ConclusionThe WPCS:CSS to maximize the profit for dairy farms increases with decreased milk production levels. At a fixed total amount of milk being produced, high producing cows increase corn available for other purposes. At the optimal WPCS:CSS, methane emission intensity is smaller and MNE is greater for high producing cows.

Co-Occurrence of Plasmid-Mediated Colistin Resistance (mcr-1) and Extended-Spectrum β-Lactamase Encoding Genes in Escherichia coli from Bovine Mastitic Milk in China.

Both mcr-1 phosphoethanolamine transferase enzymes and extended-spectrum β-lactamases (ESBLs) are the main plasmid-mediated mechanisms of resistance to colistin and third-generation cephalosporins, respectively, and currently considered a major concern to humans and food animals. Prevalence of mcr-1 gene in Escherichia coli from dairy cattle has rarely been reported. Our objective was to determine prevalence and characteristics of mcr-1 carrying E. coli isolated from clinical mastitis cases in large dairy farms (>500 cows) in 16 provinces of China. A total of 249 E. coli was isolated from 2,038 mastitic milk samples. Among these isolates, 2.0% (n = 5) and 19.7% (n = 49) were colistin resistant mcr-1-positive and ESBL-producing isolates, respectively. All mcr-1-positive isolates that produced ESBLs also carried the blaCTX-M-15 gene and belonged to phylogroup-A. Most mcr-1 and blaCTX-M-15 genes were located on conjugative plasmids (IncP and IncF, respectively) that were successfully transferred to transconjugants in conjugation experiments. All mcr-1-positive E. coli isolates were multidrug resistant, exhibiting resistance to common antimicrobials. Multilocus sequence typing of these mcr-1-carrying E. coli isolates revealed four sequence types, reflecting substantial diversity. Multilocus sequence analysis detected evolutionary connection of mcr-1 carrying isolates with our recently reported ESBL-producing E. coli isolates, raising concerns regarding fast dissemination between bacteria. To our knowledge, this was the first nation-wide report describing isolates of E. coli from mastitic milk samples collected on large dairy farms in China, carrying mcr-1 and blaCTX-M-15 genes on conjugative plasmids. We concluded that dairy cattle are a potential source of mcr-1-carrying and ESBL-producing E. coli.

Heavy metal occurrence and risk assessment in dairy feeds and manures from the typical intensive dairy farms in China.

Modern farming practice features extensive overuse of additives in animal feed. Subsequent use of manure as a fertilizer has resulted in significant heavy metal accumulation in agricultural soil, which is particularly apparent in areas of intensive farming. Here, samples of dairy feed, manure, water, and soil were collected from four intensive dairy farms in China and analyzed to assess selected heavy metal concentrations (Cu, Zn, Cr, Ni, Pb, and Cd). Results revealed that all feed samples contained the selected heavy metals, attesting to the wide use of additives during intensive dairy farming. The average Cr and Pb concentrations were 6.1 to 17.1 times greater than their recommended guidelines. Overall, average heavy metal concentrations in manure decreased in the following order: Zn > Cu > Cr > Ni > Pb > Cd. Using data obtained from the sequential extraction procedure, proposed by the Community Bureau of Reference (BCR), metal bioavailability also decreased according to the following order: Pb (69.4%) > Cr (63.7%) > Ni (60.8%) > Cu (53.4%) > Zn (50.0%) > Cd (34.5%). Heavy metal levels in sampled wastewater were also relatively high; however, surface and well water levels were relatively low. Although use of manure in dairy farming has not resulted in serious pollution until now, Zn, Cu, and Cd are all known to pose significant risk to soil quality. Finally, principal component analysis (PCA) results indicated that heavy metal levels in soil originated predominantly from parent soil materials and were then enhanced by anthropogenic sources.

Dairy farming in China at a crossroad

The self-sufficiency of China’s milk declined rapidly from 100% in 2008 to 60% in 2017, and may decline to 33% in 2050 according to a recent research. China’s domestic milk production increased by 10 times between 1988 and 2008, but has remained unchanged since the well-known melamine scandal in 2008. This was due to a great variety of reasons, such as market malfunction, insufficient scientific and technological innovation system, as well as high cost of dairy production itself.

Economic assessment of photovoltaic water pumping integration with dairy milk production

As dairy consumption grows, domestic dairy farms face challenges in reducing the cost of feeds and the production of high-quality milk for market demands. This paper aims to introduce and integrate solar energy into the milk production chain to investigate its economic performance. By collecting data on milk production processes from 11 dairy farms in China, we quantified electricity usage and costs of milk production to identify the best and worst cases. Crop yields response to the water demand and the electricity requirements of the dairy farms were considered. The study simulated scenarios of self-sufficiency at 20%, 80%, and 100%, in the identified farms by integrating a photovoltaic water pumping (PVWP) system to provide both power and water for alfalfa and other feeds’ irrigation and subsequent milk production. We evaluated annual discounted cost, revenue and net profit under each scenario and case. The results showed that a dairy farm with an integrated PVWP system and self-sufficient feeds would lead to value add-ins, such as electricity saving with solar energy generation, economic cost saving of crops, and CO2 emission reduction. The analysis on return on investment (ROI) and internal rate of return (IRR) revealed that not all the self-sufficient feeds can bring positive marginal profit. Among the investigated scenarios and cases, the dairy farm marked out by the highest ROI with 3.12 and IRR with 20.4%, was the farm where the integrated PVWP system was used to reach 20% self-sufficiency (self-production of only alfalfa). The other scenarios and cases with higher levels of self-sufficiency showed lower ROIs and IRRs. This indicates that high self-production levels of feeds decrease the total profit due to high investment cost. Sensitivity analyses of crop price and operational cost were conducted for ROI with single and double factor approaches. Scale and production of feeds proportions should be carefully considered in improving the economic performance of dairy milk production.

CD14 gene polymorphisms associated with increased risk of bovine tuberculosis in Chinese Holstein cows

Cluster differentiation antigen 14 (CD14) is an important pattern recognition receptor protein in innate immunity. The aim of this study was to identify and assess the association of single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the CD14 gene with susceptibility to bovine tuberculosis (BTB) in Chinese Holstein cows. DNA samples from 517 Chinese Holstein cows (257 tuberculosis positive cases and 259 healthy controls) were collected from dairy farms in China. SNPs in the entire CD14 gene, including exonic regions, intronic regions and close to the 5′- and 3′-terminal untranslated regions, were detected by PCR, followed by direct sequencing. Five SNPs (−5C/T, 613G/A, 1023G/A, 1306G/A and 1326G/T) were found in the CD14 gene region. Significantly increased BTB susceptibility was evident in T allele carriers of −5C/T (P<0.001; odds ratio, OR 2.02; 95% confidence interval, CI 1.57–2.77), G allele carriers of 613G/A (P<0.001; OR 2.17, 95% CI 1.50–3.08) and TG haplotype carriers of both SNPs (P<0.001; OR 3.14, 95% CI 1.24–4.50). These results suggest that −5C/T and 613G/A are risk factors for BTB in Chinese Holstein cattle and might be used as candidate genetic markers in breeding cows with natural resistance to BTB.

Can Solar Energy be an Alternative Choice of Milk Production in Dairy Farms? ---A Case study of Integrated PVWP System with Alfalfa and Milk Production in Dairy Farms in China

As China's dairy consumption grows, both the domestic milk production and the importation of dairy products are increasing to meet market demands. The objective of this study was to quantify electricity usage and cost of milk production with data analysis of dairy farms and evaluate the potential alternative energy supply-solar energy generated by PV water pumping system (PVWP). We collected data in milk production processes from 11 dairy farms in China. By selecting the optimal dairy farm, we simulate the scenario of solar power generation with PVWP system to provide power both for milk and alfalfa production. With estimations of electricity saving, economic cost saving and CO2 saving on every kg milk produced under PVWP system, we conclude that scenario PVWP with alfalfa and milk production can results in value add-ins, new sources of revenue, energy supply and emission reductions.

ESBL-Producing Escherichia coli from Cows Suffering Mastitis in China Contain Clinical Class 1 Integrons with CTX-M Linked to ISCR1.

The prevalence of pathogenic multi-drug resistant (MDR) extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL)-producing Escherichia coli is rapidly increasing, becoming a global concern. In a veterinary context, ESBL-producing E. coli are mostly reported in poultry and pigs. Here, we report on the prevalence and characterize ESBL-producing E. coli isolated from diverse dairy farms in China. Overall, 36 (23.53%) out of 153 E. coli isolates from mastitic milk samples (n = 1252) were confirmed as ESBL-producers by double-disc synergy testing and PCR. Nucleotide analysis of PCR amplicons revealed that blaCTX-M was the predominant ESBL gene detected in 28 (77.78%) isolates, with blaCTX-M-15 being the major (78.57%) allele encoding for ESBLs. Also, 20 (55.56%) and 6 (16.67%) of the ESBL isolates were carrying blaTEM and blaSHV genes, respectively, in singlet or in combination. The majority of these isolates belonged to phylo-group A (69.44%) and D (16.67%). Strikingly, all these isolates were found to be MDR showing high resistance to cephalosporins including the fourth generation cefepime and common non β-lactams. Additionally, class 1 integrons (intI1) were found in 30 (83.33%) isolates. Analysis of the class 1 integrons variable regions indicated that they were carrying up to five different gene cassettes conferring resistance to various drugs with a predominant combination of dfrA17-aadA5 genes in tandem, conferring resistance to aminoglycosides and trimethoprim. However, no ESBL encoding genes were found in the cassettes. Interestingly, 22 (66.11%) of the ESBL isolates were also carrying insertion sequence common region 1 (ISCR1) which was found to be associated with most of the CTX-M genes. Altogether, the current study reports on the high prevalence of ESBL-positive E. coli, particularly CTX-M-15, carrying clinical class 1 integrons and ISCR1 elements are likely indicative of their rapid and wider dissemination, posing threats to veterinary and public health. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first comprehensive study to report on the alarming high occurrence of ESBL-producing E. coli from mastitic cows in China.

In situ rumen digestibility of ester-linked ferulic and p-coumaric acids in crop stover or straws in comparison with alfalfa and Chinese wild ryegrass hays

Phenolic acids are widely distributed in graminaceous plant cell walls. Five Charolais×Nanyang crossbred steers, fitted with rumen fistulas, were used as experimental animals. Nylon bags containing corn stover, wheat straw, rice straw, alfalfa hay and Chinese wild ryegrass, commonly used forages on dairy farms in China, were incubated in the rumen for 6, 12, 24, 36, 48 and 72h. Unlike the observations for alfalfa hay, ruminal disappearance of ester-linked ferulic (FAest) and p-coumaric (PCAest) acids in Chinese wild ryegrass and crop stover and/or straw was dependent on the incubation time (P<0.001), and the disappearance of FAest was much greater than that of PCAest. The rapidly degradable fractions (a) of FAest and PCAest were all lower than the insoluble but potentially degradable fractions (b) in all forages except alfalfa hay. The degradation rate (c) of fraction b for both phenolic acid types was highest in alfalfa hay, followed by Chinese wild ryegrass hay, crop straw and/or stover (P<0.001). Consequently, effective degradability (ED) ranked as: alfalfa hay>Chinese wild ryegrass>corn stover>rice straw>wheat straw (P<0.001). Contents of lignin (sa), ether-linked ferulic acid (FAeth) and ether-linked p-coumaric acid (PCAeth) in the forages were negatively correlated with a, b, c and ED values of forage FAest and PCAest degradation (P<0.05). In contrast with alfalfa hay, soluble FAest and PCAest fractions were lower in crop straw and/or stover and Chinese wild ryegrass, and the insoluble phenolic acid fraction can be potentially degraded in the rumen. The degradation of FAest and PCAest in the rumen was dependent on forage FAeth and PCAeth contents, as well as lignin (a) content, in the forages.

Development and application of an ELISA kit for the detection of milk progesterone in dairy cows.

Progesterone (P4) is a steroid gonadal hormone that is mainly produced from the corpus luteum and placenta and has various biological functions, especially reproductive regulation. It is important to establish a specific and sensitive P4 enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for the study of ovary activity and reproductive disorders. Therefore, we prepared a monoclonal antibody (MAb) in a completed antigen (11α-OH-P4-HS-OVA). Based on the MAb and our previously prepared completed antigen, a highly specific and sensitive ELISA was developed. In the present study, a competitive ELISA for the determination of P4 was described in dairy cow milk. It was found that P4 concentration in milk samples from five pregnant cows was significantly higher than that from five estrus cows. The diagnosis rate for pregnancy and non-pregnancy in 54 dairy cows were 93.3% and 95.8%, respectively, at 19 to 23 days after pregnancy by detecting milk P4 concentration. In summary, the developed ELISA is a potential tool for P4 research and offers an alternative, simple, rapid technique for detecting P4, especially in future large clinical investigations on pregnancy identification and reproductive disorders in dairy farms in China.

Water availability footprint of milk and milk products from large-scale dairy production systems in Northeast China

As China's dairy consumption grows, both the domestic milk production and the importation of dairy products are increasing to meet demand. As a first step toward understanding the environmental impacts of water use in the expanding Chinese dairy industry, life cycle assessment (LCA) was used to calculate the water availability footprint for large-scale production systems in Heilongjiang, a major production region. Comparisons were also made with imported products from the US (California) and New Zealand. The water footprint of milk (cradle to farm gate) produced in Heilongjiang was around 11 L H2Oe (H2O-equivalents) kg−1 fat-protein-corrected milk (FPCM). This compared to 461 and 0.01 L H2Oe kg−1 FPCM for production in California and New Zealand respectively. Accordingly, the water footprints of milk products (cradle to factory gate) produced in Heilongjiang were much lower than those imported from California, but higher than those from New Zealand. From a food industry perspective, shifting the sourcing of dairy products from California to New Zealand or Heilongjiang could greatly reduce the associated life cycle water footprints of dairy-based processed foods. These results highlight that dairy products can be produced with minimal potential to contribute to freshwater scarcity. However, dairy production systems vary, both in production pattern and local environmental context. With the expansion of dairy farming in China, the development of farming systems with high consumptive water requirements should be avoided in water-stressed regions.

Productivity, efficiency and structural problems in Chinese dairy farms

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to identify the structural problem in the Chinese dairy sector. There exists a large number of low‐efficiency, small‐scale farms, and productivity inequality between small and large farms keeps increasing, which is a possible driving force behind the Melamine scandal in 2008.Design/methodology/approachUsing the stochastic frontier production function, this paper estimates and compares the changes in technology and technical efficiency between backyard, small‐scale, medium‐scale and large‐scale dairy farms in China over the period between 2004 and 2008.FindingsThere are compensating effects between technology and technical efficiency. However, low yield for backyard farms is mainly caused by traditional low‐yield varieties, even though the technical efficiency is very high, which cannot compensate for the low technology.Research limitations/implicationsThe author put the assumption of constant return to scale mainly due to the data availability. Such an assumption implies that there are no scale‐effects between the different scales in productivity, and the productivity difference is explained by technology and technical efficiency.Practical implicationsIn order to solve the structural problems, Chinese governments should help small‐scale farmers to adopt new high‐yield varieties, to subsidize small‐scale farmers, and to train farmers to master the complicated skills for raising high‐yield varieties.Originality/valueThe paper gives another possible explanation for the Melamine scandal of milk powder in 2008. If the structural problem cannot be solved, similar food safety scandals could happen once again.

A training program to improve milk production in the developing Chinese dairy industry

The Chinese government has been concerned about the inability of Holstein heifers imported from Australia to perform to their genetic potential. Therefore, the Australian government initiated an extension program to address the nutritional, environmental and health management of these animals. This involved developing appropriate resources and providing on-site training at workshops in four Chinese provinces (Xinjiang, Inner Mongolia, Hebei and Heilongjiang) that have been the major recipients of Australian cattle and together account for 65% of China’s dairy herd. Training resources were developed in the form of a comprehensive reference manual, a set of 12 applied fact sheets and an interactive DVD. Training has been delivered to over 285 key dairy extension workers and farmers from across China, with over 90% of participants giving a positive appraisal for all workshop sessions. The growth of dairy farming in China is likely to be the key driver of continued demand for dairy heifers from Australia and associated support for training, which must now be the initiative of the Chinese government.

Enhancing productivity on suburban dairy farms in China

AbstractDairy farms in China's suburban areas have been playing an important role in providing urban markets with fresh milk. With the rising demand for fluid milk and dairy products in the cities, there is a perception that small and scattered dairy farms in China's provinces are gradually disappearing and more concentrated dairy cattle farming is being formed near suburban areas. This article uses farm‐level survey data and stochastic input distance functions to make estimates of total factor productivity (TFP) on suburban dairy farms, as well as for the entire dairy sector. The results show that over the past decade TFP growth has been positive on suburban dairy farms, and this rise in productivity has been driven mostly by technological change. However, at the same time we find that, on average, the same farms have been falling behind the advancing technical frontier. We also find one of the drivers of the suburban dairy sector is the relatively robust rate of technological change of these farms, which has been more rapid than on farms in the dairy sector as a whole. The results suggest that efforts to achieve greater adoption of new technologies and better advice on how to use the technologies and manage production and marketing within the suburban dairy sector will further advance productivity growth in the sector.