Czechoslovakian Wolfdog Research Articles

Wolves and dogs unleashed: exploring differences and similarities in adult play

ABSTRACT The behavioral outcomes of wolf domestication include high tameness and playful motivation Wolves and dogs exhibit extended play into adulthood, making adult play a key model to explore domestication effects We collected data on mother-reared wolves and Czechoslovakian Wolfdogs (CWDs), analyzing play fighting behaviors. CWDs are a good comparison model due to their genetic closeness to wolves. Wolves played in a more competitive and less reciprocal way compared to dogs, although they avoided biting playmates' throat, the most vulnerable body part. Compared to CWDs, wolves also shortened play sessions to limit escalation risks. Despite studying one wolf colony and a few CWD groups, domestication's effect on making play 'tamer' is evident even in less selected dog breeds. Both species shared about 78% of play patterns. Interestingly, the level of play variability was comparable between wolves and dogs thus suggesting that both species require a certain level of unpredictability to make their sessions rewarding. In conclusion, variation and constancy in adult play fighting within the genus Canis offer insights into its functional role in mature animals. Our data highlight Canis species' potential for future adult play studies, presenting them as excellent research models.

Echocardiographic findings in apparently healthy Czechoslovakian wolfdogs

IntroductionTo echocardiographically evaluate a large number of apparently healthy Czechoslovakian wolfdogs (CWDs) to identify possible subclinical cardiac abnormalities and to generate reference intervals. AnimalsOne-hundred and seventeen apparently healthy client-owned CWDs. Materials and methodsStandard two-dimensional, M-mode, and Doppler echocardiographic measurements were obtained on non-sedated, manually restrained standing dogs. Animals with no relevant echocardiographic abnormalities were used to generate reference intervals. Echocardiographic variables were compared between males and females and between dogs with and without mitral regurgitation (MR). Results and discussionAmong the 117 CWDs, 103 dogs were used to generate reference intervals. The 14 dogs with abnormalities had more than trivial MR (12 dogs), subaortic stenosis (one dog), and equivocal subaortic stenosis (one dog). The 44 males were heavier than 59 females (P<0.001) and had a larger maximum left atrial dimension (P=0.015), left ventricular internal dimension at end-diastole (P<0.001) and systole (P<0.001), and thicker interventricular septum thickness at end-diastole (P=0.016). A positive linear correlation was identified between bodyweight and aortic root and left atrial diameters and left ventricular dimensions and between age and aortic root and left atrial diameter and peak late transmitral flow velocity. A negative linear correlation was identified between age and peak early transmitral flow velocity and the ratio between peak early and late transmitral flow velocities. No differences in echocardiographic-derived cardiac dimensions were detected between healthy dogs and dogs with more than trivial MR. ConclusionsIn this population of CWDs, subclinical cardiac abnormalities were uncommon, and they were mainly classified as MR.

Prevalence of elbow dysplasia in 13 dog breeds in France: a retrospective radiographic study (2002-2022).

To describe the prevalence of elbow dysplasia (ED) in 13 dog breeds in France. A total of 18,870 elbow radiographs taken from 2002 to 2022 were evaluated by 2 independent examiners. For each breed, the incidence of each of the 4 International Elbow Working Group scoring classes was extracted from the database. Breeds were excluded if fewer than 150 radiographs had been read for that breed. This study included 17,861 records for 13 dog breeds: American Akita, Alaskan Malamute, Old German Shepherd (Altdeutscher Schäferhund), American Staffordshire Terrier, Australian Shepherd, Belgian Shepherd, White Swiss Shepherd, Bernese Mountain Dog, Cane Corso, Czechoslovakian Wolfdog, Rhodesian Ridgeback, Rottweiler, and Dogue de Bordeaux. The overall prevalence of ED was 11.4%, ranging from 1.1% in the Czechoslovakian Wolfdog to 32.2% in the Dogue de Bordeaux. The Dogue de Bordeaux, Rottweiler, Bernese Mountain Dog, and Cane Corso breeds were most commonly affected by ED. The prevalence of ED was significantly higher in male dogs than in female dogs (17.5% vs 10.5%, P < .05). Joint incongruity and fragmented coronoid process were the 2 most common primary ED lesions identified. The prevalence of ED among the dogs evaluated decreased over the timeframe of the study. The results of this study help to clarify the prevalence of ED in different breeds in France. These data should be interpreted with caution as this study included a small percentage of the total number of dogs born for each breed in France over the study period.

Molecular Surveillance of Canine Degenerative Myelopathy in Breeding Kennels from Romania.

Canine degenerative myelopathy (CDM) is a spontaneous neurodegenerative disease. Genetically, CDM is an autosomal recessive disease with incomplete penetrance, most commonly caused by a genetic mutation in exon 2 of gene SOD1 (c.118G > A). This study aimed to determine the mutant allele frequency associated with CDM in various dog breeds from Romania. Dogs (n = 230) from 26 breeds were included in the study. Genotyping using the PCR-RFLP technique was performed on DNA extracted from oral swabs. The results revealed that 204 dogs were homozygous for the wild-type allele (G/G), 16 were heterozygous (A/G), and 10 were homozygous for the mutant allele (A/A). The mutant allele was identified in Wire Fox Terrier, Romanian Mioritic Shepherd, German Shepherd, Rottweiler, Belgian Shepherd, and Czechoslovakian Wolfdog breeds. The mutant allele frequency (A) within the tested population was 0.0783. The results for Belgian Shepherd, German Shepherd, and Romanian Mioritic Shepherd were in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, but a departure was observed for Rottweiler. The current study included a first screening of the Romanian Bucovina Shepherd, Romanian Mioritic Shepherd, and Caucasian Shepherd breeds. Genetic testing for the mutation associated with CDM is important in order to avoid the risk of the emergence of dogs homozygous for the SOD1:c118G > A allele.

The relaxed open mouth is a true signal in dogs: demonstrating Tinbergen's ritualization process

Play fighting, the most iconic form of social play, is often punctuated by specific signals, such as the relaxed open mouth (ROM) display, limiting the risk of misunderstanding between playmates. Although there is general consensus that the ROM of dogs is a ritualized version of play biting, the empirical demonstration of the actual ritualization of ROM has been lacking. We videorecorded and analysed 118 playful sessions involving 24 Czechoslovakian wolfdogs (12 females; 12 males), which is a breed of domestic dog, Canis lupus familiaris, showing wolf-like behavioural traits. By using an integrated approach of different techniques (dog facial action coding system, an unsupervised cluster analysis and the Levenshtein distance), we empirically demonstrate that the ROM is intrinsically different from the play biting action in this breed of dog. Contrary to the play bite, during ROM, the recruitment of muscular action units for each facial display was more consistent, conspicuous and intra- and interindividually stereotyped. Moreover, a sequential analysis revealed that the ROM usually preceded playful offensive patterns, thus underlining the real metacommunicative function of the signal. Finally, by running a linear mixed model, we found that the most balanced sessions were punctuated by the most prolonged performance of ROM, thus revealing the efficiency of the facial signal in maintaining a balanced session. In conclusion, through the processes of formalization, simplification and emphasis, an ordinary precursor behaviour (i.e. play biting) has been taken out of context and transformed into an extraordinary, derived behaviour (i.e. ROM) specifically designed to attract receivers' attention and modulate playful social interactions in dogs.

Don't stop me now, I'm having such a good time! Czechoslovakian wolfdogs renovate the motivation to play with a bow.

Dogs engage in play behavior at every age and the play bow is their most iconic playful posture. However, the function of this posture is still under debate. Here, we selected the Czechoslovakian Wolfdog (CWD) as a model breed to clarify the function of the play bow. We analyzed frame-by-frame 118 sessions of 24 subjects and recorded 76 play bow events. We found that all the play bows were performed in the visual field of the playmate suggesting that the sender takes into account the attentional state of the receiver when releasing the signal. By drawing survival curves and using log-rank test we found that play bow was mainly performed during a short pause in an ongoing session and that its performance triggered the playmate's reaction again. These findings show that play bow functions in restoring the partner motivation to play. Finally, by using a sequential analysis and a generalized mixed model, we found no evidence supporting the metacommunicative function of the play bow. The signal did not necessarily precede a contact offensive behavior (e.g., play biting and play pushing) and it was not affected by the level of asymmetry of the play session. In conclusion, in CWDs play bow can be considered a visual signal useful to maintain the motivation to play in the receiver. Therefore, we suggest that the mismatched number of play bows emitted by the 2 players in a given session can be predictive of their different motivations to play.

Pituitary dwarfism, patent duct arteriosus and Cushing's syndrome in a dog

AbstractA 3‐month‐old, intact female Czechoslovakian wolfdog was referred for growth retardation. General physical examination revealed an IV/VI left basilar continuous murmur, a body condition score of 3/9, body weight 2.2 kg, and dermatological alterations. Transthoracic echocardiography diagnosed patent duct arteriosus. Genetic testing revealed that the dog had a LHX3 mutation, and the low concentration of insulin‐like growth factor 1 confirmed the diagnosis of pituitary dwarfism. The endocrine disorder was treated with levothyroxine, and the congenital heart disease was corrected interventionally, leading to a net improvement in the clinical condition. After 3 years, the dog was referred for polyuria, polydipsia, polyphagia and alopecia. Diagnostic workup revealed pituitary‐dependent hypercortisolism due to a pituitary macroadenoma. In addition to levothyroxine, the dog was treated with trilostane with resolution of the clinical signs.

Czechoslovakian Wolfdog Genomic Divergence from Its Ancestors Canis lupus, German Shepherd Dog, and Different Sheepdogs of European Origin.

This study focused on the genomic differences between the Czechoslovakian wolfdog (CWD) and its ancestors, the Grey wolf (GW) and German Shepherd dog. The Saarloos wolfdog and Belgian Shepherd dog were also included to study the level of GW genetics retained in the genome of domesticated breeds. The dataset consisted of 131 animals and 143,593 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). The effects of demographic history on the overall genome structure were determined by screening the distribution of the homozygous segments. The genetic variance distributed within and between groups was quantified by genetic distances, the FST index, and discriminant analysis of principal components. Fine-scale population stratification due to specific morphological and behavioural traits was assessed by principal component and factorial analyses. In the CWD, a demographic history effect was manifested mainly in a high genome-wide proportion of short homozygous segments corresponding to a historical load of inbreeding derived from founders. The observed proportion of long homozygous segments indicated that the inbreeding events shaped the CWD genome relatively recently compared to other groups. Even if there was a significant increase in genetic similarity among wolf-like breeds, they were genetically separated from each other. Moreover, this study showed that the CWD genome carries private alleles that are not found in either wolves or other dog breeds analysed in this study.

Comparing behavioural characteristics of Czechoslovakian Wolfdogs, German shepherds and Labrador retrievers in Italy and the Czech Republic

Through domestication and subsequent selection dogs’ morphological and behavioural traits have been selected for functional purposes beyond companionship. Since dogs are kept as pets worldwide and live in close contact with humans, gathering information on the behavioural characteristics of breeds either potentially problematic or obtained through hybridization appears particularly relevant. In the current study, the C-BARQ questionnaire was used to examine the behaviour of the Czechoslovakian wolfdog, a recent breed obtained through hybridization of the Carpathian wolf and the German shepherd dog and rapidly growing in popularity. One thousand four hundred twenty owners, 1119 from Italy and 301 from the Czech Republic completed the online questionnaire providing data on Czechoslovakian wolfdogs (CWDs), their sister breed, i.e. German shepherd dogs (GSs), and Labrador retrievers (LRs).Overall some behavioural differences among the breeds emerged together with discrepancies between Italian and Czech owners in the evaluation of some behavioural traits.Italian owners outlined only a few breeds and/or sex differences. Regardless of breed and training male dogs were rated as more aggressive towards other dogs, more excitable and active, more prone to show attention-seeking behaviour, less trainable, and less prone than females to engage in chasing than females. CWDs showed less stranger-directed fear than GSs and LRs and less non-social fear than GSs. According to Czech owners, males were generally more aggressive than females and CWDs and GSs were significantly more aggressive towards strangers and other dogs than LRs. CWDs showed more stranger-directed fear and separation-related behaviour and were less trainable than both GSs and LRs. The training was generally reported to reduce aggressive and separation-related behaviour, fear of strangers and non-social stimuli, and chasing tendencies. Taken together these findings suggest that CWDs could be more similar to ancient breeds (more wolf-like) for some behavioural traits and like modern breeds for others. Different breeding practices and/or social/environmental conditions such as socialization, handling, training methods but also owners’ perceptions and expectations about a given breed could explain the differences in rating that emerged between the two countries.

Estimation of genotyping errors of STR markers in dogs and wolves

This article will discuss the estimation of genotyping errors for Mini-DogFiler panel A and B in group of wolfs (n = 39) where the source material for DNA isolation were faeces and control group of dogs (n = 170), represented by Czechoslovakian wolfdog breed (CSW), where DNA was obtained from buccal swabs.DNA samples isolated from buccal swabs had a very low frequency of genotyping error estimated as mean error rate per allele (ea = 0.09 %), mean error per locus (el = 0.18 %) and error rate per multilocus genotype (eobs = 2.17 %). Completely different situation was observed for DNA samples isolated from faeces and affirms how complicated is to get reliable results from such material. Total performance was very poor where only 7 out of 39 samples replicated (∼18 %) at least 2 times out of 4 replicates. In such case would be eobs = 86.5 %. For this type of samples is typical very fragmented DNA with low concentration. This fact leads to the occurrence of many of negative effects like an allelic dropout, null allele or presence of PCR artefacts. Results confirm necessity of multiple DNA isolates from one sample and a multiple amplification of these samples for creating a consensus for each genotype.Moreover, both types of samples suffered by relatively high frequency of allelic dropout occurring in locus VGL2136, but it did not increase error rate because no signal was detected in all cases. The cause of such behaviour remained unknown but it raised the question whether is this locus appropriate for analysis of wolf and CSW samples.

Comparison of minidogfiler and "ASCH" STR multiplex systems for preliminary estimation of variability within wolf´s like dog breeds

This study was undertaken to estimate basic population parameters and compare resolution capabilities of two chosen STR panels (Mini-DogFiler, MDF; “ASCH”). Wolf´s like dog breeds, namely Czechoslovakian wolfdog (n = 55), Saarloos wolfdog (n = 22), and samples of the Eurasian wolf (n = 21) were selected for their close genetic relationship. Also, German Shepherd (n = 26) breed was included as a donor of dog genome for the Czechoslovakian wolfdog.Overall 228 alleles were detected using 20 STR markers (MDF 11 and “ASCH” 9 loci). Number of alleles ranged from 3 to 23 per locus, with median 11 alleles per locus for MDF and 10 for “ASCH”. Both panels showed similar level of variability in the means of number of alleles per locus (k) and observed heterozygostity (HO) as there were not found statistically significant differences (Mann-Whithey U-test; p = 0.85 for k, p = 0.88 for HO). A group of wolves showed the highest variability unlike Saarloos wolfdog with very low variability within all measured parameters, although such differences were statistically significant only for k parameter of MDF panel (Kruskal-Wallis ANOVA; p = 0.0003) and no other groups were different. Both microsatellite panels were able correctly distinguish 3 dog breeds and wolfs as was verified by STRUCTURE programme and several potential hybrids were identified. Moreover, this pilot analysis amenable creation of allelic ladders for MDF and “ASCH” panels and thus ensure consistency and reliability of future study with extended number of samples.

Wolf-like or dog-like? A comparison of gazing behaviour across three dog breeds tested in their familiar environments.

Human-directed gazing, a keystone in dog–human communication, has been suggested to derive from both domestication and breed selection. The influence of genetic similarity to wolves and selective pressures on human-directed gazing is still under debate. Here, we used the ‘unsolvable task’ to compare Czechoslovakian Wolfdogs (CWDs, a close-to-wolf breed), German Shepherd Dogs (GSDs) and Labrador Retrievers (LRs). In the ‘solvable task’, all dogs learned to obtain the reward; however, differently from GSDs and LRs, CWDs rarely gazed at humans. In the ‘unsolvable task’, CWDs gazed significantly less towards humans compared to LRs but not to GSDs. Although all dogs were similarly motivated to explore the apparatus, CWDs and GSDs spent a larger amount of time in manipulating it compared to LRs. A clear difference emerged in gazing at the experimenter versus owner. CWDs gazed preferentially towards the experimenter (the unfamiliar subject manipulating the food), GSDs towards their owners and LRs gazed at humans independently from their level of familiarity. In conclusion, it emerges that the artificial selection operated on CWDs produced a breed more similar to ancient breeds (more wolf-like due to a less-intense artificial selection) and not very human-oriented. The next step is to clarify GSDs' behaviour and better understand the genetic role of this breed in shaping CWDs’ heterospecific behaviour.

A wolfdog point of view on the impossible task paradigm.

To elucidate the role of domestication, we used the impossible task paradigm to test Czechoslovakian Wolfdogs with a known proportion of 'wolfblood' in their DNA and, as a control group for our subjects, we used German shepherd dogs. We hypothesized that the difference between wolves and domestic dogs is based on genetics and modified by obedience; if so, the looking back performance of the subject should be linked to its proportion of wolf-genes. To prove that, we observed 73 Czechoslovakian Wolfdogs, and 27 German shepherd dogs, and analysed their human-directed gazing behaviour during our test. Our apparatus consisted of a glass container placed upside down over a small amount of food. The test proceeded with three solvable trials, in which the subject could obtain the food by manipulating the container, followed by an unsolvable one in which the container was fixed onto the board. Our results suggest that there is no significant correlation between the probability of looking back in Czechoslovakian Wolfdogs and their proportion of 'wolf blood'. However, the probability of looking back was higher in German Shepherd dogs than in Czechoslovakian Wolfdogs (odds ratio = 9.1). German Shepherd dogs showed not only a higher frequency of looking back, but also the duration of their looks was longer.

Social behavior in dog puppies: Breed differences and the effect of rearing conditions

IntroductionMost of the studies investigating the effect of early rearing environment in dogs used laboratory dogs and reported that early experiences markedly affect the puppies’ behavior. However, the subjects of these experiments cannot be considered as representatives of family dogs.MethodsIn this study, we investigated whether different raising conditions shape social behavior toward humans in 8-week-old family dog puppies of two breeds, Labrador and Czechoslovakian wolf dog. The puppies were tested in a series of tests that represented typical situations of family dogs.ResultsWe found that Czechoslovakian wolf dog puppies were more active than Labrador puppies in general, as they were more likely to explore the environment and the objects and spent more time doing so. Tendency to gaze at humans also varied between breeds, but in a context-specific way. Additionally, puppies housed separately from their mother interacted more with toys, puppies housed in a kennel tended to stay closer to the experimenter than puppies raised in the house, and puppies housed in a kennel tended to stay in the proximity of the experimenter more than puppies raised in the house.ConclusionsOur results provide evidence for early keeping conditions influencing social behavior and also highlight breed differences in puppies’ behavior. Whether these differences are due to different developmental patterns and/or behavioral predispositions remains to be explored.

Wolf outside, dog inside? The genomic make-up of the Czechoslovakian Wolfdog

BackgroundGenomic methods can provide extraordinary tools to explore the genetic background of wild species and domestic breeds, optimize breeding practices, monitor and limit the spread of recessive diseases, and discourage illegal crossings. In this study we analysed a panel of 170k Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms with a combination of multivariate, Bayesian and outlier gene approaches to examine the genome-wide diversity and inbreeding levels in a recent wolf x dog cross-breed, the Czechoslovakian Wolfdog, which is becoming increasingly popular across Europe.ResultsPairwise FST values, multivariate and assignment procedures indicated that the Czechoslovakian Wolfdog was significantly differentiated from all the other analysed breeds and also well-distinguished from both parental populations (Carpathian wolves and German Shepherds). Coherently with the low number of founders involved in the breed selection, the individual inbreeding levels calculated from homozygosity regions were relatively high and comparable with those derived from the pedigree data. In contrast, the coefficient of relatedness between individuals estimated from the pedigrees often underestimated the identity-by-descent scores determined using genetic profiles. The timing of the admixture and the effective population size trends estimated from the LD patterns reflected the documented history of the breed. Ancestry reconstruction methods identified more than 300 genes with excess of wolf ancestry compared to random expectations, mainly related to key morphological features, and more than 2000 genes with excess of dog ancestry, playing important roles in lipid metabolism, in the regulation of circadian rhythms, in learning and memory processes, and in sociability, such as the COMT gene, which has been described as a candidate gene for the latter trait in dogs.ConclusionsIn this study we successfully applied genome-wide procedures to reconstruct the history of the Czechoslovakian Wolfdog, assess individual wolf ancestry proportions and, thanks to the availability of a well-annotated reference genome, identify possible candidate genes for wolf-like and dog-like phenotypic traits typical of this breed, including commonly inherited disorders. Moreover, through the identification of ancestry-informative markers, these genomic approaches could provide tools for forensic applications to unmask illegal crossings with wolves and uncontrolled trades of recent and undeclared wolfdog hybrids.

Porównanie tolerancji obciążeń fizjologicznych w treningu sportowym psów ras siberian husky i wilczak czechosłowacki

The purpose of the study was to determine the physiological load tolerances of two breeds of dogs used for sports, namely the Siberian husky and the Czechoslovakian wolfdog, on the basis of measurements of surface temperature and blood lactic acid levels.Two breeds - Czechoslovakian wolfdog (10 individuals) and Siberian husky (10 individuals), 20 dogs - male, 4-6 years old, were selected for the study. All the qualified animals were previously examined by a veterinarian and considered to be healthy. The dogs tested were used in dogtrekking sport competitions. For both breeds, an attempt was made to test the dogtrekking harness for 5 km of non-stop track running. The animals trotted while being led by a guide. Three attempts were made for each dog at 48 hour intervals. All dogs were tested for two parameters, first before and then after the exercise – measuring surface temperature at selected points of the body as well as lactic acid concentration. A higher and statistically significant level of lactic acid was recorded in the case of Siberian husky. Before the run, the level of lactic acid was comparable in both breeds. The second parameter was the surface temperature measured at the selected measuring points. Significant statistical differences were noted for the wolfdog breed at P≤0.05 before the exercise and 10 minutes after resting, at the neck, rump and abdominal points. In addition, the same level of statistical significance was measured by surface thermography at the abdominal point, both before and immediately after the run. The high statistically significant increase (P≤0.01) in surface temperature was noted for muscles of the so-called rump, both before and after the exertion. There was no statistically significant difference in the back thermography in the wolfdog breed. In the Siberian husky breed, statistically significant differences (P≤0.05) were observed at the neck, rump and chest points, in confrontation with the temperature value after the run as well as 10 min after rest. After completion of the run, there was a statistically significant decrease in the thermography at the abdominal measurement point, relative to the temperature before exertion and after rest.

Double symmetrical aortic arch in a Czechoslovakian wolfdog - surgical treatment and health assessment four years after treatment: a case report

The paper describes a double symmetrical aortic arch in a dog trapping the oesophagus. Thoracotomy was performed in the fourth inter-costal space under general, isoflurane-maintained, anaesthesia. Cutting of the arterial ligament failed to free the oesophagus. Dissection of further vascular structures revealed the left and right aortic arches to be of similar diameter. A vascular clamp was put on the left arch for 10 min, while the patient’s cardiovascular parameters were monitored. The lack of significant cardio-respiratory symptoms indicated the necessity of ligating and cutting the left aortic arch. Removal of additional tissue from the region of the cut on the left arch completely released the oesophagus which was continuously monitored by video-oesophagoscopy. The chest was closed according to a standard thoraco-surgical procedure. The cutting of the left aortic arch and the release of the surrounding tissue restored the normal position of the oesophagus. After surgery, the animal was returned to its owners in a very good condition. Control examination showed complete amelioration of clinical symptoms and subsequent normal development of the dog. Intra-operative clamping of the left aortic arch with simultaneous monitoring by oesophagoscopy ensured a positive outcome of the surgery of the intra-operatively diagnosed double aortic arch.

A genetic study of a SOD1 missense mutation in Czechoslovakian Wolfdog

Canine degenerative myelopathy occurs in many dog breeds, mainly German Shepherd dogs. The causative mutation E40K in the SOD1 gene changes the structure and function of the superoxide dismutase 1 protein. The Czechoslovakian Wolfdog is an unique dog breed, that resulted from hybridization between Carpathian wolves and German Shepherds in the 1950s. Its genetic composition shows a higher proportion of the dog genome than wolf genome (Smetanová et al., 2015). In the present study we have screened the Czechoslovakian Wolfdog population for the causative degenerative myelopathy mutation E40K in order to estimate its prevalence in Slovakia. Our study confirmed that the frequency of the E40K missense mutation (0,25) is relatively high and genetic testing is important in breeding programs.

From Wolves to Dogs, and Back: Genetic Composition of the Czechoslovakian Wolfdog.

The Czechoslovakian Wolfdog is a unique dog breed that originated from hybridization between German Shepherds and wild Carpathian wolves in the 1950s as a military experiment. This breed was used for guarding the Czechoslovakian borders during the cold war and is currently kept by civilian breeders all round the world. The aim of our study was to characterize, for the first time, the genetic composition of this breed in relation to its known source populations. We sequenced the hypervariable part of the mtDNA control region and genotyped the Amelogenin gene, four sex-linked microsatellites and 39 autosomal microsatellites in 79 Czechoslovakian Wolfdogs, 20 German Shepherds and 28 Carpathian wolves. We performed a range of population genetic analyses based on both empirical and simulated data. Only two mtDNA and two Y-linked haplotypes were found in Czechoslovakian Wolfdogs. Both mtDNA haplotypes were of domestic origin, while only one of the Y-haplotypes was shared with German Shepherds and the other was unique to Czechoslovakian Wolfdogs. The observed inbreeding coefficient was low despite the small effective population size of the breed, possibly due to heterozygote advantages determined by introgression of wolf alleles. Moreover, Czechoslovakian Wolfdog genotypes were distinct from both parental populations, indicating the role of founder effect, drift and/or genetic hitchhiking. The results revealed the peculiar genetic composition of the Czechoslovakian Wolfdog, showing a limited introgression of wolf alleles within a higher proportion of the dog genome, consistent with the reiterated backcrossing used in the pedigree. Artificial selection aiming to keep wolf-like phenotypes but dog-like behavior resulted in a distinctive genetic composition of Czechoslovakian Wolfdogs, which provides a unique example to study the interactions between dog and wolf genomes.

The contribution of geometric morphometric analysis to prehistoric ichnology: the example of large canid tracks and their implication for the debate concerning wolf domestication

Apart from exceptional cases, such as Laetoli, Koobi Fora or Happisburgh hominin trackways (Behrensmeyer and Laporte, 1981; Bennett et al., 2009; Raichlen et al., 2010; Ashton et al., 2014; Bennett and Morse, 2014), tracks are often underestimated in prehistoric research, particularly in cave contexts, despite their representing rich sources of behavioural and taphonomic information. The analysis of human and animal tracks in archaeological contexts can help to both untangle the chronology of cave occupations and identify the animal species who frequented different sites. Here we focus on differentiating large dog and wolf tracks that are very similar in both appearance and size. We use a large sample of 36 modern prints from two wolf subspecies (Canis lupus lupus and Canis lupus albus) and 106 dog tracks belonging to seven breeds (Beauceron, German Shepherd, Bernese Mountain Dog, Czechoslovakian Wolfdog, Great Dane, Siberian Husky and Rottweiler). This study uses an approach combining statistical analyses and geometric morphometrics (Berge et al., 2006; Bennett et al., 2009). Our results shed new light on the still unidentified canid tracks accompanying human footprints documented at Chauvet Cave in the Ardèche region of southern France (Clottes, 2001) and have important implications for current debates surrounding the timing of wolf domestication in Western Europe and prehistoric ichnology in general.