Cyclic Mechanical Stress Research Articles

A Study on the Electrical Properties of Atomic Layer Deposition Grown InOx on Flexible Substrates with Respect to N2O Plasma Treatment and the Associated Thin-Film Transistor Behavior under Repetitive Mechanical Stress.

Indium oxide (InOx) films were deposited at low processing temperature (150 °C) by atomic layer deposition (ALD) using [1,1,1-trimethyl-N-(trimethylsilyl)silanaminato]indium (InCA-1) as the metal precursor and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) as the oxidant. As-deposited InOx exhibits a metallic conductor-like behavior owing to a relatively high free-carrier concentration. In order to control the electron density in InOx layers, N2O plasma treatment was carried out on the film surface. The exposure time to N2O plasma was varied (600-2400 s) to evaluate its effect on the electrical properties of InOx. In this regard, thin-film transistors (TFTs) utilizing this material as the active layer were fabricated on polyimide substrates, and transfer curves were measured. As the plasma treatment time increases, the TFTs exhibit a transition from metal-like conductor to a high-performance switching device. This clearly demonstrates that the N2O plasma has an effect of diminishing the carrier concentration in InOx. The combination of low-temperature ALD and N2O plasma process offers the possibility to achieve high-performance devices on polymer substrates. The electrical properties of InOx TFTs were further examined with respect to various radii of curvature and repetitive bending of the substrate. Not only does prolonged cyclic mechanical stress affect the device properties, but the bending direction is also found to be influential. Understanding such behavior of flexible InOx TFTs is anticipated to provide effective ways to design and achieve reliable electronic applications with various form factors.

Bond characteristics of CFRP-strengthened concrete members subjected to cyclic temperature and mechanical stress at low humidity

A total of fifty two CFRP strengthened concrete specimens were tested. In preliminary investigation, ten specimens were tested at ambient conditions with varying bond length. This indicated the effective bond length is in the range between 100mm and 150mm. The bond length of 150mm was considered and forty two specimens were prepared for detailed investigation. Thirty of them were conditioned under a range (0–50%) of sustained loading. All specimens were subjected to the temperature cycles of 20–50°C and constant relative humidity (30%) during conditioning. These specimens were tested using the single-lap shear test method at ambient conditions after 1800h and 2250h exposure for accelerated ageing. The conditioned specimens showed the maximum strength reduction of 24%. The test results indicate that the concrete/epoxy interface as the weakest part of the composite in service life. Reduction in peak bond stress was noted from conditioned specimens with exposed level of sustained loading.

Suppressive oligonucleotides inhibit inflammation in a murine model of mechanical ventilator induced lung injury.

Mechanical ventilation (MV) is commonly used to improve blood oxygenation in critically ill patients and for general anesthesia. Yet the cyclic mechanical stress induced at even moderate ventilation volume settings [tidal volume (Vt) <10 mL/kg] can injure the lungs and induce an inflammatory response. This work explores the effect of treatment with suppressive oligonucleotides (Sup ODN) in a mouse model of ventilator-induced lung injury (VILI). Balb/cJ mice were mechanically ventilated for 4 h using clinically relevant Vt and a positive end-expiratory pressure of 3 cmH2O under 2-3% isoflurane anesthesia. Lung tissue and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid were collected to assess lung inflammation and lung function was monitored using a FlexiVent®. MV induced significant pulmonary inflammation characterized by the influx and activation of CD11c+/F4/80+ macrophages and CD11b+/Ly6G+ polymorphonuclear cells into the lung and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. The concurrent administration of Sup ODN attenuated pulmonary inflammation as evidenced by reduced cellular influx and production of inflammatory cytokines. Oligonucleotide treatment did not worsen lung function as measured by static compliance or resistance. Treatment with Sup ODN reduces the lung injury induced by MV in mice.

Integrity of CFRP-concrete bond subjected to long-term cyclic temperature and mechanical stress

This paper reports on the long-term performance of CFRP strengthened concrete members subjected to 20–50°C cyclic temperature, 60% constant humidity and sustained loading. The induced sustained stress was imposed through a range of loading values from 0% to 35% of the ultimate strength of specimens subjected to normal environmental conditions. The behaviour of CFRP/concrete lap shear specimens prepared using two types of commercially available two-part epoxy adhesives was investigated. Three different curing conditions were taken into account.

Genetic association and stress mediated down-regulation in trabecular meshwork implicates MPP7 as a novel candidate gene in primary open angle glaucoma.

BackgroundGlaucoma is the largest cause of irreversible blindness affecting more than 60 million people globally. The disease is defined as a gradual loss of peripheral vision due to death of Retinal Ganglion Cells (RGC). The RGC death is largely influenced by the rate of aqueous humor production by ciliary processes and its passage through the trabecular meshwork (TM) in the anterior part of the eye. Primary open angle glaucoma (POAG), the most common subtype, is a genetically complex disease. Multiple genes and many loci have been reported to be involved in POAG but taken together they explain less than 10 % of the patients from a genetic perspective warranting more studies in different world populations. The purpose of this study was to perform genome-wide search for common variants associated with POAG in an east-Indian population.MethodsThe study recruited 746 POAG cases and 697 controls distributed into discovery and validation cohorts. In the discovery phase, genome-wide genotype data was generated on Illumina Infinium 660 W-Quad platform and the significant SNPs were genotyped using Illumina GGGT assay in the second phase. Logistic regression was used to test association in the discovery phase to adjust for population sub-structure and chi-square test was used for association analysis in validation phase. Publicly available expression dataset for trabecular meshwork was used to check for expression of the candidate gene under cyclic mechanical stress. Western blot and immunofluorescence experiments were performed in human TM cells and murine eye, respectively to check for expression of the candidate gene.ResultsMeta-analysis of discovery and validation phase data revealed the association of rs7916852 in MPP7 gene (p = 5.7x10−7) with POAG. We have shown abundant expression of MPP7 in the HTM cells. Expression analysis shows that upon cyclic mechanical stress MPP7 was significantly down-regulated in HTM (Fold change: 2.6; p = 0.018). MPP7 protein expression was also found to be enriched in the ciliary processes of the murine eye.ConclusionUsing a genome-wide approach we have identified MPP7 as a novel candidate gene for POAG with evidence of its expression in relevant ocular tissues and dysregulation under mechanical stress possibly mimicking the disease scenario.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12920-016-0177-6) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Mechanism of corrosion fatigue cracking of automotive coil spring steel

The AISI 300M ultra-high strength steel was applied for the automotive suspension coil spring. Recently, some premature failures were reported, which caused by synergistic effect of cyclic mechanical stress and corrosion, namely corrosion fatigue cracking. In this study, the accurate mechanism of corrosion fatigue cracking for coil spring steel was studied for the proper prevention method against the catastrophic failure. Fatigue life was evaluated in 5 wt% NaCl solution under the anodic dissolution and hydrogen embrittlement conditions, which is simulated by applying constant potentials. Scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy analysis indicated that the corrosion fatigue cracking was initiated at the MnS inclusion of the pit initiation site. The calculation of hydrogen production corresponding to each corrosion fatigue test condition revealed the two operating mechanisms of the cracking process. The corrosion fatigue cracking failure of coil spring steel was mainly caused by the anodic dissolution combined with hydrogen embrittlement.

Mechanical properties of EVA-modified cement for underground gas storage

Underground gas storage (UGS) is an artificial gas reservoir used for balancing the supply-demand chain throughout the year. During its operation cycle, the cement sheath experiences cyclic mechanical stress, and thermal and may crack due to its low elasticity, hard brittleness, and porosity. These cracks could lead to the transmission of stored gas through the cement behind the casing and before the formation and can even be a source of micro-cracks. Therefore, the mechanical properties of the cement sheath have higher requirements. In this work, a new material was used to prevent cement cracking, improve cement elasticity at low stress and deformability at high stress, reduce the number of pores and reduce the crack propagation in the cement used for completion of UGS wells. The experimental results showed that mixing EVA into cement decreases the compressive strength, but significantly improves the toughness and deformability at high stress and the elasticity deformation restorability at low stress. Moreover, the addition of EVA results in the remarkable reduces reduction of macropores.

Genetic variants and cellular stressors associated with exfoliation syndrome modulate promoter activity of a lncRNA within the LOXL1 locus.

Exfoliation syndrome (XFS) is a common, age-related, systemic fibrillinopathy. It greatly increases risk of exfoliation glaucoma (XFG), a major worldwide cause of irreversible blindness. Coding variants in the lysyl oxidase-like 1 (LOXL1) gene are strongly associated with XFS in all studied populations, but a functional role for these variants has not been established. To identify additional candidate functional variants, we sequenced the entire LOXL1 genomic locus (∼40 kb) in 50 indigenous, black South African XFS cases and 50 matched controls. The variants with the strongest evidence of association were located in a well-defined 7-kb region bounded by the 3'-end of exon 1 and the adjacent region of intron 1 of LOXL1. We replicated this finding in US Caucasian (91 cases/1031 controls), German (771 cases/1365 controls) and Japanese (1484 cases/1188 controls) populations. The region of peak association lies upstream of LOXL1-AS1, a long non-coding RNA (lncRNA) encoded on the opposite strand of LOXL1. We show that this region contains a promoter and, importantly, that the strongly associated XFS risk alleles in the South African population are functional variants that significantly modulate the activity of this promoter. LOXL1-AS1 expression is also significantly altered in response to oxidative stress in human lens epithelial cells and in response to cyclic mechanical stress in human Schlemm's canal endothelial cells. Taken together, these findings support a functional role for the LOXL1-AS1 lncRNA in cellular stress response and suggest that dysregulation of its expression by genetic risk variants plays a key role in XFS pathogenesis.

Mechanical Stress Promotes Maturation of Human Myocardium From Pluripotent Stem Cell-Derived Progenitors.

Recent advances in pluripotent stem cell biology and directed differentiation have identified a population of human cardiovascular progenitors that give rise to cardiomyocytes, smooth muscle, and endothelial cells. Because the heart develops from progenitors in 3D under constant mechanical load, we sought to test the effects of a 3D microenvironment and mechanical stress on differentiation and maturation of human cardiovascular progenitors into myocardial tissue. Progenitors were derived from embryonic stem cells, cast into collagen hydrogels, and left unstressed or subjected to static or cyclic mechanical stress. Compared to 2D culture, the unstressed 3D environment increased cardiomyocyte numbers and decreased smooth muscle numbers. Additionally, 3D culture suppressed smooth muscle α-actin content, suggesting diminished cell maturation. Cyclic stress-conditioning increased expression of several cardiac markers, including β-myosin heavy chain and cardiac troponin T, and the tissue showed enhanced calcium dynamics and force production. There was no effect of mechanical loading on cardiomyocyte or smooth muscle specification. Thus, 3D growth conditions favor cardiac differentiation from cardiovascular progenitors, whereas 2D conditions promote smooth muscle differentiation. Mechanical loading promotes cardiomyocyte structural and functional maturation. Culture in 3-D facilitates understanding how cues such as mechanical stress affect the differentiation and morphogenesis of distinct cardiovascular cell populations into organized, functional human cardiovascular tissue. Stem Cells 2015;33:2148-2157.

Cyclic mechanical stress modulates neurotrophic and myelinating gene expression of Schwann cells.

This study aimed to investigate the response of Schwann cells to cyclic compressive and tensile stresses of different durations of stimulation. RSC96 cells were subjected to cyclic tensile stress or compressive stress; for either, cells in five groups were treated for 0, 1, 2, 24 and 48 h respectively. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay was conducted to detect secretion of nerve growth factor (NGF), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), neurotrophin-3 and neurotrophin-4 in the culture medium. Real-time PCR was conducted to quantify mRNA expression of neurotrophins including NGF, BDNF, neurotrophin-3 and neurotrophin-4, and myelin-related genes including Sox10, Krox20, neuregulin 1, NCAM, N-cadherin, P0, MAG and MBP. Immunofluorescent staining was performed to visualize Krox20 and F-actin in the tensile groups. Within 24 h, cells treated with cyclic tensile stress expressed and secreted significantly more BDNF, while cyclic compression down-regulated BDNF expression. Cells treated with both tensile and compressive stress down-regulated expression of NRG1, NCAM, Krox20 and Sox10 at all time points. Expression of N-cadherin was not affected by either stretch or compression. F-actin was down-regulated by tensile stress. Both tensile and compressive loading down-regulated expression of several important myelin-related Schwann cells genes and thus facilitated demyelination. Tensile stress meanwhile promoted secretion of BDNF by Schwann cells within 24 h, which may contribute to maintenance and repair of damaged axons. These effects of mechanical stress might have been mediated by the actin cytoskeleton.

Gene expression in response to cyclic mechanical stretch in primary human dermal fibroblasts.

The human dermal skin is permanently exposed to mechanical stress, for instance during facial expression, which might cause wrinkles with age. Cyclic mechanical stretching of cells results in cellular and cytoskeleton alignment perpendicular to the stretch direction regulating cellular response. With gene expression profiling it was aimed to identify the differentially expressed genes associated with the regulation of the cytoskeleton to investigate the stretch-induced cell alignment mechanism. Here, the transcription activity of the genome in response to cyclic mechanical stress was measured using DNA microarray technology with Agilent SurePrint G3 Human GE 8x60k Microarrays, based on the overall measurement of the mRNA. Gene expression was measured at the beginning of the alignment process showing first reoriented cells after 5 h stretching and at the end after 24 h, where nearly all cells are aligned. Gene expression data of control vs. stretched primary human dermal fibroblasts after 5 h and 24 h demonstrated the regulation of differentially expressed genes associated with metabolism, differentiation and morphology and were deposited at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/geo with the accession number GSE58389.

Investigation of human embryonic stem cell-derived keratinocytes as an in vitro research model for mechanical stress dynamic response.

The epidermis is mainly composed of keratinocytes forming a protective barrier. It is perpetually subjected to mechanical stress and strain during development, homeostasis and disease. Perturbation of the normal strain with alteration of its biological response may lead to severe diseases such as psoriasis and epidermolysis bullosa. To date, most of the studies about skin response to mechanical stress used immortalized cell lines (i.e. HaCaT) or primary cells from donors, which suffer issues of limited physiological relevance and inter-donor variability. It is therefore necessary to develop a new human model for the study of normal skin physiology and response to mechanical stress. In this study, we investigated the use of keratinocytes derived from human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) as a reliable alternative model to HaCaT for study of the effects of mechanical tension. With comparison to HaCaT, hESC-derived keratinocytes (hESC-Kert) were exposed to up to 3days of cyclic mechanical stress, and gene expression changes were analyzed. Dynamic expression of several key mechanical stress related-genes was studied at mRNA level using qPCR. The expression of matrix-metallopeptidase9 was studied at protein level using ELISA. The two cell types displayed similar gene expression kinetics for most of the genes including E-cadherin, cateninβ1, connexin43, desmoglein1, endothelin1, integrinα6, interleukinα1, keratin1, 6, and 10, keratinocyte growth-factor-receptor and lamininα5. Unlike HaCaT, hESC-Kert displayed early gene and protein expression of matrix metallopeptidase 9 following mechanical stimulation, suggesting that these cells have remodeling capacity that resembles that of normal human skin. Our study confirmed the use of hESC-Kert as a good model for study of skin response to mechanical stress.

Effects of age on the physiological and mechanical characteristics of human femoropopliteal arteries

Surgical and interventional therapies for peripheral artery disease (PAD) are notorious for high rates of failure. Interactions between the artery and repair materials play an important role, but comprehensive data describing the physiological and mechanical characteristics of human femoropopliteal arteries are not available. Fresh femoropopliteal arteries were obtained from 70 human subjects (13–79years old), and in situ vs. excised arterial lengths were measured. Circumferential and longitudinal opening angles were determined for proximal superficial femoral, proximal popliteal and distal popliteal arteries. Mechanical properties were assessed by multi-ratio planar biaxial extension, and experimental data were used to calculate physiological stresses and stretches, in situ axial force and anisotropy. Verhoeff–Van Gieson-stained axial and transverse arterial sections were used for histological analysis. Most specimens demonstrated nonlinear deformations and were more compliant longitudinally than circumferentially. In situ axial pre-stretch decreased 0.088 per decade of life. In situ axial force and axial stress also decreased with age, but circumferential physiological stress remained constant. Physiological circumferential stretch decreased 55–75% after 45years of age. Histology demonstrated a thickened external elastic lamina with longitudinally oriented elastin that was denser in smaller, younger arteries. Axial elastin likely regulates axial pre-stretch to help accommodate the complex deformations required of the artery wall during locomotion. Degradation and fragmentation of elastin as a consequence of age, cyclic mechanical stress and atherosclerotic arterial disease may contribute to decreased in situ axial pre-stretch, predisposing to more severe kinking of the artery during limb flexion and loss of energy-efficient arterial function.

Cyclic compressive loading on 3D tissue of human synovial fibroblasts upregulates prostaglandin E2 via COX-2 production without IL-1β and TNF-α.

ObjectiveExcessive mechanical stress on synovial joints causes osteoarthritis (OA) and results in the production of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), a key molecule in arthritis, by synovial fibroblasts. However, the relationship between arthritis-related molecules and mechanical stress is still unclear. The purpose of this study was to examine the synovial fibroblast response to cyclic mechanical stress using an in vitro osteoarthritis model.MethodHuman synovial fibroblasts were cultured on collagen scaffolds to produce three-dimensional constructs. A cyclic compressive loading of 40 kPa at 0.5 Hz was applied to the constructs, with or without the administration of a cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) selective inhibitor or dexamethasone, and then the concentrations of PGE2, interleukin-1β (IL-1β), tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), IL-6, IL-8 and COX-2 were measured.ResultsThe concentrations of PGE2, IL-6 and IL-8 in the loaded samples were significantly higher than those of unloaded samples; however, the concentrations of IL-1β and TNF-α were the same as the unloaded samples. After the administration of a COX-2 selective inhibitor, the increased concentration of PGE2 by cyclic compressive loading was impeded, but the concentrations of IL-6 and IL-8 remained high. With dexamethasone, upregulation of PGE2, IL-6 and IL-8 was suppressed.ConclusionThese results could be useful in revealing the molecular mechanism of mechanical stress in vivo for a better understanding of the pathology and therapy of OA.Cite this article: Bone Joint Res 2014;3:280–8.

Closely packed nanoparticle monolayer as a strain gauge fabricated by convective assembly at a confined angle

The reliability and sensitivity of a strain gauge made from a nanoparticle monolayer intrinsically depend on electron tunneling between the adjacent nanoparticles, so that creating nanoscale interstitials with uniform distribution and tuning the interparticle separation reversibly during cyclic mechanical stress are two vital issues for performance enhancement. In this work, one assembly technique is initialized to fabricate parallel nanoparticle strips by precisely tailoring the contact angle of a gold colloid on a substrate. The assembly of a nanoparticle monolayer with a close-packed pattern can be simultaneously switched on and off by independently varying the contact angle across a threshold value of 4.2°. This nanoparticle strip shows a reversible and reliable electrical response even if a mechanical strain as small as 0.027% is periodically supplied, implying well-controlled electron tunneling between the adjacent nanoparticles.

AC Loss Before and After Cyclic Mechanical Loading in the ITER RF CICCs

AC loss of Nb3Sn cable-in-conduit conductors (CICC) decreases after cyclic mechanical loading, but remains almost the same in case of Nb-Ti ones. It was observed during previous ITER CS, TF, and PF inserts tests in JAEA. The same phenomena have been detected on numerous ITER CS, TF, and PF short samples tested in the SULTAN facility. Experimental methods of ac loss investigation in JAEA-Naka and SULTAN were different, but the final results showed a good agreement. Analysis and numerical investigation of the present work were based on RF PF&TF CICCs SULTAN test results, theory of superconductivity, and our own physical and engineering understanding of evidence. Cyclic mechanical loading in both JAEA and SULTAN was initiated by electromagnetic force. In this paper, we attempt to explain why hysteresis, coupling, and mechanical loss decrease dramatically after cyclic mechanical loading and thermo-mechanical stress caused by WUCD (warm-up and cool-down) in Nb3Sn CICC.

Cement design for underground gas storage well completion

In order to shave the peak demands during the cold seasons, underground gas storage (UGS), balancing the supply-demand chain throughout the year, has been accepted as a strategic method. During the successive UGS cycles, the well cement experiences cyclic mechanical, thermal, and hydraulic stress and may crack due to its low elasticity and ductility. This could lead to the transmission of stored gas through cementing behind casing, one of the major challenges experienced in UGS operations, so posing high workover costs on UGS wells. In addition to workover costs, the loss of inventory due to gas transmission makes the reservoir insufficient in proper gas supply during the high-demand season. In this work, a new formulation has been invented in order to prevent cement cracking, improve cement elasticity and ductility, and reduce the crack propagation in the cement used for completion of UGS well. The new formulation adds a polymer and an elastomer to cement composition. Results showed that addition of latex to cement decreases the density, hydration and fluid loss of cement; also, the rate of cement bonding decreases. On the other hand, addition of polypropylene fibers results in dramatic improvement of compressive strength and stress strain properties of the cement. In comparison with elastomer, this additive provides a higher threshold elasticity of cement. Also, the combined cohesive effect of latex and flexibility of microfibers brings about the best resistance against excessive pressures.

Construction of collagen gel scaffolds for mechanical stress analysis.

We designed a cyclic compression system using readily available six-well culture plates to investigate the influence of mechanical stress on skin-like structures. The effects of cyclic mechanical stress on protein expression by cells were easily examined, and hence, this system should be useful for further analysis of skin responses to mechanical stress.

Crescimento subcritico de trinca e previsão de vida em fadiga do compósito cerâmico ZrO2-Al2O3

Cerâmicas apresentam excelente durabilidade química, resistência ao desgaste, biocompatibilidade, respeito ao meio ambiente e estética. Uma das propriedades mais importantes a ser considerada em implantes dentários totalmente cerâmicos é a fadiga cíclica, devido às solicitações mecânicas cíclicas as quais os implantes estão subjugados durante processos de mastigação, que pode induzir milhares de ciclos de tensão por dia em uma restauração, com isso exibir significativo crescimento subcrítico de trinca e assim poder diminuir a resistência de componentes cerâmicos, ao longo do tempo. Nesse trabalho, a previsão de vida em fadiga cíclica do compósito ZrO2-Al2O3 foi investigada. Mistura de pós contendo 80% de ZrO2 e 20% de Al2O3 foi compactada e sinterizada a 1600 °C. As amostras sinterizadas foram caracterizadas por difração de raios X e microscopia eletrônica de varredura. Dureza, tenacidade e resistência à fratura por flexão foram determinadas, e os resultados utilizados na determinação dos parâmetros de fadiga. Os testes de fadiga foram realizados em dispositivo de flexão em 4 pontos, sob freqüência de 25 Hz e razão de tensão de 0,1. Um aumento do nível de tensão levou à redução do tempo de vida sob fadiga. Baseado nos parâmetros determinados pelos ensaios mecânicos e de fadiga, e utilizando-se a estatística de Weibull, associada a modelos de determinação de crescimento subcrítico de falha, a velocidade de propagação de trincas nesse compósito é determinada e relacionada com os mecanismos de transformação martensítica e tensão residual entre as fases. Os componentes submetidos ao carregamento cíclico exibiram propagação subcrítica de trinca, em níveis de tensão significativamente menores do que o KIC. Apesar desta susceptibilidade ao crescimento subcrítico de trinca, cálculos com base nos parâmetros de fadiga e nas tensões aplicadas indicam que os componentes com estruturas do compósito ZrO2-Al2O3 podem exibir vidas maiores que 20 anos, se o diâmetro do componente estrutural é adequadamente projetado.

Correlation between texture and mechanical stress durability of thin aluminum films

In this article, differently textured aluminum (Al) metallizations of surface acoustic wave (SAW) devices have been exposed to cyclic mechanical stress in order to investigate a potential correlation between their texture and their mechanical stress durability. Samples of SAW devices with differently textured Al thin film electrodes have been manufactured, and texture measurements have been carried out on all samples with electron backscatter diffraction. Subsequently, the SAW devices have been operated at heavy electrical load until a defined mechanical fatigue of its Al electrodes occurred. SAW devices with highly textured Al electrodes showed almost 20 times higher power durability than SAW devices with untextured Al electrodes. We show that this increase in electrical power durability has to be fully attributed to the strongly enhanced mechanical stress durability of highly textured Al films. Furthermore, a positive correlation between the Al films' texture and its electrical conductivity has been found.