Cyber Activities Research Articles

Cybersecurity and the Future of International Relations

This research examines the growing influence of cybersecurity on international relations, focusing on how cyber threats, digital espionage, and cyber warfare are transforming state sovereignty, diplomacy, and global security. With the rise of state-sponsored cyberattacks and the increasing involvement of non-state actors, cybersecurity has become a central issue in the global power dynamics between major nation-states and international organizations. The study analyzes high-profile cyber incidents, such as the SolarWinds and Stuxnet attacks, and investigates their geopolitical implications, including how they have reshaped cyber norms and governance strategies. Through a comparative analysis of national cybersecurity strategies in countries like the U.S., China, and the EU, this research assesses the effectiveness of current international treaties, such as the Budapest Convention on Cybercrime, and multilateral efforts to establish cybersecurity norms. Preliminary findings suggest that cybersecurity has evolved into a strategic tool in global competition, with cyberattacks being used for coercion and disruption. Moreover, the rise of cyber espionage has heightened the stakes in digital diplomacy, leading to the establishment of specialized cyber units within foreign ministries. This study advocates for the development of comprehensive international treaties focused on cyber governance, with an emphasis on conflict prevention, cyber deterrence, and collective defense mechanisms. Additionally, it calls for greater involvement of multilateral organizations, such as the United Nations and NATO, in creating transparent and accountable frameworks for state-sponsored cyber activities. The research underscores the urgent need for cohesive global governance models to address the complex challenges posed by cybersecurity in shaping the future of international relations.

‘Cyber-rattling: can ‘pre-positioning’ in cyberspace amount to a threat of the use of force under Article 2(4) of the United Nations Charter?

ABSTRACT Pre-positioning is the process by which computer code is installed on the network or system of a rival state, to allow for future hostile cyber activity if required. This process is a critical concern for states given its potential for destabilisation in international security. Consideration of how international law, specifically Article 2(4) of the UN Charter, governs pre-positioning is therefore important. Analysis of threats of force in cyberspace remains under-studied however, and threats of force are undefined in the UN Charter. This article identifies the key criteria for a threat of force, and concludes that although cyber pre-positioning could in some circumstances result in a use of force, it is unlikely that it is communicated in sufficiently precise terms, beyond that of ‘cyber brandishing’, to amount to a threat of force. The article considers what this may mean for states’ ability to respond to cyber pre-positioning.

From cyber benign to cyber malicious: unveiling the evolution of insider cyber maliciousness from a stage theory perspective

ABSTRACT Insider cyber maliciousness presents a significant challenge to organizational security. Existing research has focused on identifying determinants of malicious cyber behavior but has not accounted for the progression insiders go through in arriving at the point where they look to harm their employers. This knowledge gap prevents organizations from potentially derailing acts of cyber maliciousness through timely interventions. Based on interviews with a cross-industry sample of organizational insiders, this study adopts a stage theory development approach to explore the progression of insiders from cyber benign to cyber malicious. Stage theories are useful frameworks that help explain how individuals’ perceptions, emotions, and/or behaviors progress through distinct and qualitatively different stages of development. By uncovering the initial, subsequent, and recurring perceptions and emotions that drive insiders to engage in malicious cyber activities, this research contributes to a deeper understanding of the phenomenon. Our findings establish a new basis for understanding insider cyber maliciousness, presenting it as an evolutionary progression. As such, our findings also reorient the focus of malicious insider interventions toward strain-reducing or strain-relieving interventions based on the initial, subsequent, or recurring strain experiences.

Legal challenges of attributing malicious cyber activities against space activities

Abstract Malicious cyber activities against space activities (MCASAs) add to the complexities of the legal attribution of malicious cyber activities violating international law. The ‘space’ implies the possibility of applying international space law considering the lex specialis derogat legi generali (more specific rules will prevail over more general rules) principle. However, neither the attribution rules of international space law nor of general international law could completely tackle this dilemma. This study categorizes MCASAs into three categories based on the role of the involved space activities and analyses the crux of legal attribution in each scenario. It proposes different coping approaches, including a four-pronged way, introducing a peculiarity test, and specifying substantive international obligations of the states responsible for space activities.

Shortcomings in the Regulations of Criminal Law on Cyber Crime and Recommendations

In the modern digital space, personal data can be attacked and used for illegal purposes. On 17 April 2023, the Vietnamese Government passed Decree No. 13/2023/ND-CP on Protecting Personal Data. The Criminal Code of Vietnam 2015 (amended in 2017) set up cyber-related crimes to protect the safety of cyber activities in general and personal data in particular. However, there are a number of shortcomings in the Criminal Code in the comparison with the Decree 13/2023/ND-CP and international treaties on cybercrime. This article analyzes these shortcomings and provides recommendations to revise relevant provisions of the Criminal Code.

Legal Aspects of the Right to Freedom of Opinion in View of Jordan’s 2023 Cybercrime Law

This study highlights the legal aspects of the right to freedom of opinion in Jordan after the issuance of Jordan’s Cybercrime Law No. 17 of 2023. First, it discusses the concept of freedom of opinion in theory. Second, it highlights the protection of human rights and its impact on States. Third, it shows how States might limit the protection of freedom of opinion by criminalising cyber activities. This study relies on descriptive and analytical approaches to describe freedom of opinion and analyse its legal basis in accordance with national and international legal rules. It uses a case study of Jordan by analysing the Jordanian Cybercrime Law and its impact on the right to freedom of opinion. This study argues that Jordan’s 2023 Cybercrime Law imposes stricter penalties on perpetrators of acts classified as cybercrime, exceeds the general rules in the penal code, and expands the scope of crimes related to freedom of opinion. The study produces several recommendations, the most important of which is that restrictions on the freedom of cyber activities in Jordan must comply with international obligations and that there is a need to amend the Cybercrime Law to conform to these obligations

Assessing Attribution and Credible Deterrence in Cyberspace

This study examines the issues that states face in discerning actors within the realm of cyberspace, characterizing these challenges as akin to navigating the unregulated landscape. Lack of an effective attribution mechanism and a credible deterrence framework have significantly contributed to the volatility in cyber domain in contemporary times. This paper argues that states often accuse their adversaries of orchestrating cyber-attacks against them, yet they frequently fail to provide substantial evidence because actors behind attacks in cyberspace leverage the inherent anonymity of cyberspace to evade accountability, complicating the process of attribution even further. In addition, this study also underscores the importance of establishing an effective mechanism of deterrence in cyberspace to dissuade the attacking actors from engaging in malicious cyber activities. In line with this, this paper looks at the cyber space activities through novel perspective of no biasness, without subjectivity and tends to offer the answers of why attribution is problem, is there any possible solution to it in practice. Therefore, this study aims to highlight the ways to attribute the cyber-attacks and highlight the challenges to attribution, especially in the current scenario of states sponsoring indirectly cyber-attacks against many other states by outsourcing their aggressive designs in cyberspace to non-state actors.

ASEAN Digital Economy Framework Agreement (DEFA): Opportunities and Challenges for Vietnam

Vietnam is a key player in the ASEAN digital economy, focusing on digital integration and collaboration. The ASEAN Digital Integration Framework Action Plan 2019-2025 and the ASEAN Digital Masterplan 2025 outline the policy landscape for digital integration. ASEAN member states have signed agreements and memorandums of understanding to foster cooperation in the digital economy. However, challenges such as skill gaps, cyber security, and regulatory gaps need to be addressed. The Digital Economy Partnership Agreement (DEPA) is seen as a key venue for increasing cooperation and consistency of digital trade rules in the Asia-Pacific region. ASEAN has been actively involved in global and regional discussions on cybersecurity, aiming to galvanize regional states into collective action against malicious cyber activities. The 20th Asian Economic Community council adopted the Bandar Seri Begawan Roadmap (BSBR) to accelerate ASEAN's economic recovery and digital economy integration in October 2021. This article also applies a qualitative method with secondary data. Modular Digital Economy Agreements (DEA) may be an appropriate model for facilitating digital trade alignment with international trading partners.

IoT Forensic Cyber Activities Detection and Prevention with Automated Machine Learning Model

The Internet of Things (IoT) has been deployed in a vast range of applications with exponential increases in data size and complexity. Existing forensic techniques are not effective for the accuracy and detection rate of security issues in IoT forensics. Cyber forensic comprises huge volume constraints that are processing huge volumes of data in the Information and Communication Technology (ICT) comprised of IoT devices and platforms. Trust blockchain is effective technology those are utilized to assess the tamper-proof records in all transaction in the IoT environment. With the implementation of trust blockchain the record and transaction are processed with a distributed ledger that is managed by the network nodes. The challenge associated with the trust blockchain in IoT forensics is cost and security. To achieve significant cost-effectiveness organizations, need to evaluate the risks and benefits associated with IoT forensics in the trust blockchain technology. In this paper, developed a Block Chain Enabled Cyber-Physical system with distributed storage. The developed Blockchain model is termed as Integrated Hadoop Blockchain Forensic Machin Learning (IHBF-ML). The IHBF-ML model uses the Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS) with cyberspace to improve security. Within the IHBF-ML model, IoT data communication is established with the smart contract. The smart contract-based blockchain process uses the Machine Learning model integrated with Cat Boost classification model for anomaly detection. Cost in IoT forensic is minimized with the parallel processing of the data through MapReduce Framework for the traffic translation, extraction, and analysis of the dynamic feature traffic from the IoT environment. The experimental analysis stated that constructed IHBF-ML model reduces the cost by ~25% than the other conventional blockchain Ethereum and EOS.

METHODOLOGY FOR DETERMINING THE IMPACT OF DIGITAL TECHNOLOGIES ON ECONOMIC POLICY

The article examines current issues related to the creation of a single international digital market and their impact on economic policy. It is emphasized that the conditions under which the industrial complex of Ukraine should function in the near future are under the influence of globalization. Brief information on the essence of these processes is provided. It is noted that digitization is carried out within the framework of economic policy, which in the EU is aimed at creating a single international digital market. The characteristic features of this process are given. It is also noted that according to the policy adopted by the EU, over the next five years it is planned to focus on three key objectives to ensure that digital solutions will help Europe to follow its own path to a digital transformation that works for the good of people through respect for our values, namely, implementing technologies that work for people, building a fair and competitive economy and an open, democratic and sustainable society. A brief description of each direction is provided. It stands to reason that every citizen, every worker, every businessman should have a fair chance, wherever they live, to reap the benefits of our increasingly digitized society. Digital solutions such as communication systems, artificial intelligence or quantum technologies can enrich our lives in many ways, although the benefits of digital technologies do not come without risks and costs. Citizens are no longer unable to control what happens to their personal data and are increasingly overwhelmed by the demands of their attention. It highlights that malicious cyber activity can threaten our personal well-being or disrupt our critical infrastructure and create wider security challenges. The unforeseen and unpredictable consequences of the intervention of artificial intelligence in the existence of humanity have already worried the inhabitants of the planet and the Governments of almost all countries. This significant societal transformation requires deep reflection at all levels of society on how Europe can best face these risks and challenges. The effectiveness of innovation policy, in particular, of the EU countries, based on the assessment of their level of readiness for the introduction of advanced digital technology - 5G Internet, is indicated. It is noted that the level of digitalization of business is the most significant factor of digitalization of the labor market, as it causes its quantitative and qualitative modifications.

Navigating the Cyber Front: Belarus' State Control and Emerging Cyber Threats

This paper provides a comprehensive overview of the cyber landscape in Belarus, with a focus on the Belarus government's use of cyber activities from an offensive and defensive context, the emergence of opposition cyber activities, and the broader implications for cybersecurity and legal compliance. In the course of the research, researchers try to assess Belarus as a source of cyber-threats, both domestically and to neighbouring states (especially those supporting Ukraine). The first section of the paper outlines the Belarusian government's engagement in cybercrimes against its citizens, especially under President Lukashenko's regime, highlighting extensive online surveillance, repression, and the escalation of these activities following the 2020 presidential elections. In this political context, Belarus is also examined as a country initiating and/or contributing to Information Warfare activities, which are mainly directed at western countries. The second section of the paper delves into Belarus's cybersecurity legal framework, examining various national strategies and concepts, the absence of a formal cybersecurity strategy, and the focus on 'information security' as part of national security. The third section presents case studies of cyber activities in Belarus, contrasting government-backed hacking efforts with those of opposition groups like the Belarus Cyber Partisans. It explores the Partisans' attacks on state infrastructure and information leaks as a form of protest against the government, and the pro-government hackers' disinformation / information campaigns website defacements, and data breaches, particularly targeting Ukraine. This section highlights the evolving nature of cyber conflict in Belarus, where both government and opposition forces use cyber tools for political ends, reflecting broader geopolitical tensions in the region. This part of the report compares the Belarusian pro-government hacktivist and Cyber Partisans groups, their activities and manifestations within the country (inside), as well as the cyber threats they pose to foreign countries. The article attempts to answer the question of what kind of threat Belarus as a country poses in the context of cybersecurity, hybrid-cyber threats. This country is often included in Russian hybrid-cyber threats strategies, Belarus entities also work with Russian and sometimes Chinese groups in undertaking cyber activities against other countries.

Botnets in Healthcare: Threats, Vulnerabilities, and Mitigation Strategies

The increasing digitization of healthcare systems has introduced new opportunities to improve efficiency and accessibility for medical professionals and patients. Examples include the simplified collection, storage, and organization of patient data using electronic health records (EHRs), the use of teleconferencing software like Zoom to allow patients to meet with their care providers remotely, and medical IoT devices like glucose monitors, pacemakers, and other remote patient monitoring devices that leverage software and the internet to provide patients and their healthcare providers with critical information. All of these use cases are examples of how technology can increase the quality of patient care. While the healthcare industry has realized many benefits from its increased investment in new technology, trends have shown that this increased utilization has also opened avenues for malicious cyber actors. One of these threats is botnets. These malicious networks of compromised computers, controlled by cybercriminals, can wreak havoc on all sectors of society, with the healthcare industry proving to be a desirable target. This research is a high-level analysis that investigates the threat botnets pose by employing an exploratory review. We identify the multifaceted nature of botnet threats in healthcare, analyzing their standard forms and the vulnerabilities inherent in healthcare infrastructures, ranging from outdated software to inadequate cybersecurity protocols to poor or total lack of security awareness training for staff. Moreover, the various techniques botnets use to propagate are explored to elucidate the potential points of exploitation and the damage they can cause organizations when proper controls are not implemented. These negative consequences include data breaches, service disruptions, and compromised patient confidentiality, which can endanger medical staff and patients if not addressed. This paper then discusses proven mitigation strategies such as end-user awareness, traffic monitoring, and detection response tools that organizations can employ to reduce the potential and efficacy of such threats. The threat landscape will continue to evolve; however, by staying on top of the latest trends, we can ensure the security of such critical infrastructure and save lives.

EU sanctions in response to cyber-attacks as crime-based emergency measures

This contribution seeks to explore the growing use of administrative measures in response to cybercrimes by analysing the specific case of sanctions in response to cyber-attacks. They constitute a novel crime-based sanctions regime, laying the foundations of personalised deterrence with respect to malicious cyber actors and consist in asset freezes and visa bans. This article reflects on the hazy boundary between crime-based sanctions as administrative or criminal law measures. The paper argues that while crime-based sanctions in response to cyber-attacks present certain similarities with criminal law measures, they remain complementary crime prevention instruments. Their administrative nature allows for an emergency response to malicious cyber operations that would not be permissible if a more stringent evidentiary standard was required.

Beyond Chinese Spy Balloons: Why We Need to Teach East Asian Studies in U.S. Homeland Security and Emergency Preparedness Programs

Abstract This article argues for the inclusion of more East Asia-focused content, particularly regarding China and North Korea, in homeland security and emergency preparedness (HSEP) undergraduate curricula. It contends that current programs overemphasize the post-9/11 counterterrorism paradigm while neglecting state-level threats, especially from China as an ascendant geopolitical rival. China poses multifaceted challenges through cyberattacks, intellectual property theft, economic coercion, and potential military contingencies, such as invading Taiwan. North Korea's nuclear program and cyber activities also jeopardize U.S. homeland security. To prepare future professionals, the article recommends adding a “state actor threats” core subject matter area covering the histories, cultures, and political dynamics underlying these nations’ antagonistic policies. Cultivating deeper cultural competency about U.S. strategic competitors in East Asia is crucial for bolstering national security. Holistic education reform is needed to align HSEP programs with contemporary global geopolitical realities beyond traditional terrorism subjects.

Understanding the emergence and significance of behavioral cybersecurity: A bibliometric analysis

This thorough bibliometric analysis, using R-Studio and Biblioshiny, presents a comprehensive view of the evolving field of behavioral cybersecurity. It explores how human behaviors in online cyber activities have become a crucial area of research. Despite being relatively new, behavioral cybersecurity has gained considerable attention in academia and practical applications. The analysis reveals essential details such as key sources, influential authors, participating countries, affiliated institutions, and prevalent research themes in this field. It's an essential guide for new researchers, helping them identify gaps in knowledge and understand the importance of this growing research area. Examining 468 literature sources from Scopus up to January 11, 2024, shows a gradual start followed by significant growth, especially after 2012. This dynamic field offers numerous research opportunities by incorporating human aspects into cybersecurity discussions. The focus is on understanding behavioral patterns to shape strategies, guidelines, and user-centered software solutions. Spotlighting behavior in cybersecurity highlights user cognitive biases and the impact of emotions and social factors on decision-making in the cybersecurity landscape. This holistic approach underscores the crucial role of human behavior in shaping cybersecurity practices and strengthening digital defenses.

ENHANCING POWER SYSTEM SECURITY THROUGH RESILIENT FREQUENCY REGULATION IN THE FACE OF HYBRID CYBER-ATTACKS

The growing reliance on modern communication technologies in power systems for Frequency Regulation (FR) introduces vulnerabilities to cyberattacks, posing significant threats to system stability and reliability. These attacks can disrupt the coordination among various components, such as sensors, control centers, and actuators, thereby compromising the integrity of FR analysis. In response, this article proposes a resilient solution in the form of a deep-learning-based Attack Detection and Mitigation system. By integrating advanced AI techniques, this system aims to fortify the security of FR operations within the cyber-physical framework, swiftly identifying and neutralizing cyber threats. Ultimately, this approach ensures the continuous and reliable operation of power systems, mitigating the risks posed by hybrid cyberattacks and safeguarding critical infrastructure. The proposed system represents a proactive approach to mitigating the escalating risks associated with cyberattacks targeting FR in power systems. Through its deep-learning algorithms, the system can dynamically adapt to emerging threats, enhancing the resilience of FR analysis against malicious intrusions. By bolstering security measures within the cyber-physical model, the system minimizes the potential impact of cyberattacks on power system stability and reliability. Moreover, its ability to detect and mitigate threats in real-time ensures uninterrupted operation, thereby safeguarding the functionality of power systems even amidst the evolving landscape of hybrid cyber threats. This resilient solution represents a crucial step towards fortifying power system security and maintaining essential services in the face of adversarial cyber activities. Keywords: Attack detection and mitigation (ADM) system, Frequency Regulation(FR), hybrid power system, Renewable Energy Sources (RESs), resiliency.

Cybersecurity Measures Safeguarding Digital Assets and Mitigating Risks in an Increasingly Interconnected World

As interconnectivity and reliance on digital technologies continue to rise exponentially, so too do cybersecurity threats and risks. Malicious cyber actors are employing increasingly sophisticated techniques to target valuable data and disrupt critical systems and infrastructure. The impacts of successful cyber-attacks can be financially devastating and undermine an organization's reputation and customer trust. This paper examines how firms may utilize strong cybersecurity to protect digital assets and reduce risks in a connected society. As technology and communications improve, cyber threats do too. Problems keep popping up. Malware, phishing scams, and data breaches still harm businesses. Hackers can also get in simpler with more linked devices and the Internet of Things. This makes protecting digital assets and systems, networks, and critical infrastructure from sophisticated cyberattacks even more crucial. Cybercriminals can steal data, intellectual property, money, and customer information in many ways. Advanced persistent threats are used by state-backed parties for eavesdropping and geopolitics. Therefore, organizations in all professions and industries must prioritize safety and risk reduction. Businesses may increase their safety with technical, process-based, and strategic cybersecurity solutions, according to the report. This requires strong access restrictions, networks, encryption, software security, and audits. Human aspects like cyber awareness training and a comprehensive plan that matches an organization's risks and resources are considered. A thorough security plan discusses international conventions, following the rules, and using modern technologies. Two case studies demonstrate real-world operations. The first describes how a large retailer stopped a complex APT with numerous defenses. Learn how crucial segmentation, detection tools, incident reaction, and public-private partnerships are. The second one examines a major hotel chain data breach and offers simple measures like strong passwords and vendor tracking to reduce similar dangers. Even if digital adversaries are getting smarter, basic cybersecurity "hygiene." can block many attempts, the report concludes. No organization is totally safe, but following basic rules, laws, and best practices can help protect people, organizations, and governments' assets in today's linked globe. Researchers may investigate how blockchain and AI might lessen hacking risks.

Cyber Threat Analysis (CTA) in Current Conflicts

Cyber Threat Analysis (CTA) in current conflicts focuses on identifying, monitoring, and assessing potential cyber threats. The main objective is to understand how the parties to the conflict use information and network technologies to conduct warfare, espionage, disinformation, or attacks on digital infrastructure. This analysis includes the identification of actors involved in conflicts and their targets in cyberspace, as well as the analysis of techniques and tools used in cyber activities. The aim of the article is to identify the role of cyber threat analysis in the context of two current conflicts - the war in Ukraine and the Hamas attack on Israel. The article describes the essence of cyber threat analysis. The research problem focuses on identifying and understanding the role of cyber threat analysis in these conflicts and their potential consequences for international security and regional stability. Through the analysis of reports, online sources, and scientific literature, the article aims to familiarize readers with the role of cyber threat analysis in the context of these conflicts and to propose possible strategies for cyber risk management in the face of contemporary armed conflicts. The results of the analysis of cyber threats (CTA) in current conflicts include the identification of specific actors operating in cyberspace, their modus operandi, their objectives, and the techniques and tools used. In addition, the analysis can reveal existing vulnerabilities in digital security and areas that are particularly vulnerable to attacks. To sum up, it is necessary to create recommendations and directions for changes regarding the strengthening of digital security measures, such as software updates, implementation of network security, and increasing staff awareness of cyber threats. In addition, the CTA may suggest the need for better international cooperation to combat cyber threats and the need to develop strategies to prevent and respond to cyber-attacks.

Exploration of human activity fragmentation in cyber and physical spaces using massive mobile phone data

ABSTRACT The rapid development of information and communications technology (ICT) in recent years leads to the emergence of cyber space and results in the fragmentation of human activities to some extent. Nevertheless, few studies focused on the exploration of fragmentation, the new characteristic of human activities, partially due to the limited access to proper datasets. In this work, massive Call Detail Records (CDR) data and Uniform Resource Locator (URL) data from millions of mobile phone users are used to extract the activity fragmentation in both cyber and physical spaces. The relationships between activity fragmentation in the two spaces and built environment factors are further examined at different geographical scales. The results show that: 1) the spatial distributions of physical human activity fragmentation (PHAF) and cyber human activity fragmentation (CHAF) are inversely correlated; 2) compared with PHAF, CHAF are less associated with the built environment, probably because cyber activities are less restricted in time and space; 3) CHAF are more influenced by physical fragmentations and the relationships are stable across different cites, indicating that cyber space cannot be completely detached from physical space; and 4) the impact of built environment on CHAF and PHAF are different across different cities. The findings not only shed deeper light on activity fragmentation, but also enlighten the future exploration of its association with both cyber and physical spaces.

From code to command: Unveiling India’s cyberpower strategy

As cyberspace gets advanced, its significance has increased making it a key element of national power. In response to heightened cyber threats and vulnerabilities, states may seek to achieve their national objectives through digital means. As a result, strategic policies, dedicated organizations, collaborative cyber efforts, and similar initiatives seamlessly integrate into the state system. With this perspective in mind, this article explores both internal and external cyber threats, and the measures to mitigate them in India. The article will delve into three major themes- India’s domestic cybersecurity concerns, external digital threats, and its participations in global cyber affairs. As the article intends to focus chiefly on India’s digital strategic interests, it concentrates on the military cyber activities, cyber doctrines, command structure, and related areas. While the article also briefly discusses on India’s domestic efforts to combat cybercrime, it additionally examines India’s intentions to expand its role in global cyber affairs/politics.