Cutting Force Measurement Research Articles

THE EFFECT OF CUTTING FORCES ON BONE RELATED OPERATIONAL PROCESSES: A LITERATURE REVIEW

Cutting mechanics must be known in terms of solving the mechanistic problems to be encountered as a result of the operational processes on the bone. In today's applications, operational procedures such as milling, drilling, cutting and screwing can be performed on the bone as a surgical procedure. The uncontrollable cutting forces that occur as a combination of the microstructure of the bone and the geometric features of the cutting tools and the resulting localized heat (fracture and necrosis) may cause bone damage. The fracture of the cutting tool or the cut bone due to the cutting force depends on the intensity and direction of the forces applied during the operation. In this study, a review of the studies in the literature on what the factors causing bone damage and their effects are reduced. In addition, the information given in this study will be useful as a one-stop document for technicians, engineers and researchers who need information on tool design, cutting force measurements in bone processing operations (in surgical applications such as milling, drilling, cutting, etc.) of cutting forces.

Investigation of the transient change of the cutting force during the milling of C45 and X5CrNi18-10 steel taking into account the dynamics of the electro-mechanical measuring system

The possible methods of determining the cutting force—due to the great practical importance of knowing the force—have long been and are still intensively studied areas of cutting theory. In milling, cutting is a series of successive short material removals. During force measurement in such cases, the transient process that can be detected at the beginning of the process can influence the nature of the entire cutting cycle. The present study reports on the research, the aim of which was to explore the dynamic process of cutting force measurement in intermittent cutting. The measurements were made during face milling of C-steel and highly alloyed steel (X5CrNi 18–10). The milling head contained a single insert, with which the disturbing interaction of the multiple cutting edges was eliminated. As a result of the work, a method suitable for examining the close relationship between the initial transient nature of the milling cycle and the decay, as well as a mathematical model for the decay process, was developed. The model was validated with cutting experiments and measurements. The achieved results can be used to better understand the process of chip removal and to determine the actual power requirements of milling works.

Cutting-edge tool wear monitoring in AISI4140 steel hard turning using least square-support vector machine

ABSTRACT This research addresses the critical challenge of tool wear monitoring in AISI4140 steel hard turning through the innovative application of a Least Square-Support Vector Machine (LS-SVM) prediction model. While acknowledging the growing significance of hard turning over conventional grinding techniques, the background also recognizes the challenges posed by accelerated tool wear and decreased productivity. The main goal is to create a reliable tool wear prediction model that is tailored to harsh turning circumstances. Material selection, cutting force measurement, acceleration measurement, and accurate tool wear measurement are all included in the experimental procedures. Using time and frequency domain analyses, the research methodically examines how cutting force and acceleration affect tool wear. For feature selection, non-linear regression is used to determine which parameters have the greatest influence on wear. A comprehensive training and validation procedure, structural clarification, and a detailed mathematical foundation are used in the development of the LS-SVM-based tool wear prediction model. The presentation of the findings and related discussions explores the impact of acceleration and cutting force on wear. The LS-SVM model’s successful application for precise tool wear prediction in AISI4140 steel hard turning is highlighted in the conclusions, demonstrating the model’s potential to improve tool lifespan and manufacturing efficiency.

Performance of Liquid Nitrogen (LN2) on Machining Pure Titanium (Grade 2): A Comparative Study

The biggest challenge for manufacturing industries is machining super alloys due to their properties. Titanium grade 2 also comes under the category of difficult cut material. In this present investigation, the green manufacturing technology was applied to cut the titanium grade 2. The comparison study was carried out between dry and cryogenic machining. The turning trails were performed using TiN-coated carbide cutting tools. Cutting force measurements surface roughness as well as the tool wear studies were carried out with the Kistler dynamometer, SURFCOM and SEM analysis. From the responses, under cryogenic cooling 32.5% of main cutting force reduction was observed when contrasted to dry condition at a cutting speed of 282 m/min. The 24 % of improved surface quality was observed under cryogenic cooling approach, more fracture on tool rake face was observed under dry condition and the favorable chip formations were also noted under cryogenic cooling approach.

Studied validation of finite element modeling for titanium alloy (Ti–6Al–4V) at face milling

BackgroundDue to its qualities, There is a lot of use of the titanium alloy (Ti–6Al–4V) in gas turbines and other aero engines. It is difficult to determine machining parameters such cutting force, temperature, and surface roughness, and it is difficult to calculate these values using analytical methods. The finite element method (FEM) is a particularly useful platform for studies since it predicts the machining parameters. MethodsThe advantage of this method is taken for the purpose of linking the mechanical and thermal equations based on a step of the dynamic, temperature-displacement, explicit of the Lagrangian formulation in a new model that is fully thermomechanically connected. Three mesh areas were created for optimizing the cutting zone during the cutting simulation process. The machining process by using a face milling tests was carried out. There are two variable factors of cut such as feed rate, cutting speed are created randomly when depth is a constant parameter. High-speed camera used to capture the machining process which determines the important details of spark generated. Findings and interpretationThere is a very excellent agreement between the experimental data and the simulation results from the finite element modeling (FEM). By raising the feed rate in the cutting zone, the cutting temperature can be raised and a spark can be generated. This led to the conclusion that surface roughness trends can be predicted using feed cutting force measurements. Surface roughness rose in direct proportion to the magnitude of the feed cutting force, and vice versa.

Development and testing of a stationary dynamometer using cross-beam-type force-sensing elements for three-axis cutting force measurement in milling operations

This study focused on the development and testing of a stationary dynamometer using force-sensing elements capable of measuring three axes of cutting force during milling operations. The force-sensing element was based on the Maltese cross-beam concept but has been improved and modified to increase sensitivity and reduce interference or cross-talk error. A Finite element analysis was conducted to study strain distribution and determine sensor positions in the force-sensing element. By using four force-sensing elements and several piezoresistive strain sensors, a stationary dynamometer prototype was constructed. A series of calibration tests were performed to evaluate the dynamometer’s sensitivity, linearity, hysteresis, and repeatability over three orthogonal axes. The dynamometer’s dynamic features and functionality for milling applications were examined through modal analysis and real milling tests. Additionally, the end-milling and slot-milling cutting force values were compared to those of a reference dynamometer (Kistler 9129AA). Overall, the experimental results indicated that the proposed stationary dynamometer is a reliable and accurate alternative for measuring cutting force during machining operations and other force measurements.

Design and Optimization of Tool-Embedded Thin-Film Strain Sensor Substrate Structure

With the intelligent tool cutting force measurement model as the engineering background, the selection, design, and optimization of the substrate structure of the tool-embedded thin-film strain sensor are studied. The structure of the thin-film strain sensor is studied, and the substrate structure design is divided into function area structure design and connection area structure design. Establishing the substrate structure library of the sensor, we subdivide the library into six layouts of function area infrastructure and five layouts of connection area infrastructure. Taking the sensitivity, fatigue life, and comprehensive mechanical properties of the substrate structure as the design indexes, based on the statics theory, the functional relationship between the structural parameters and the deflection of the six layouts of the substrate function area is established; based on the dynamics theory, the functional relationship between the parameters and the natural frequency of six layouts of the function area is established; based on the coupling of structural statics design theory and dynamics design theory, the evaluation method for the comprehensive performance of the parameters of six layouts of the function area is established. Based on the function area structure, five connection area structures are designed for comprehensive performance analysis. The structural sensitivity of the substrate function area design and optimization is expanded 1.75 times, and the comprehensive performance is expanded 1.53 times. The sensitivity of the connection area design and optimization is expanded 2.3 times, and the comprehensive performance is expanded 1.72 times. The structure is optimized according to the structural stress characteristics, the design, selection, and optimization process of the substrate structure summarized herein, and five design criteria of the substrate structure are proposed.

Design and Development of a Tri-Axial Turning Dynamometer Utilizing Cross-Beam Type Force Transducer for Fine-Turning Cutting Force Measurement.

The main focus of this work was the design and development of a cross-beam force transducer for use in the construction of a tri-axial dynamometer. This dynamometer would be able to measure the cutting force along all three axes simultaneously during turning operations. The force transducer was built on the concept of the Maltese cross-beam, but it had been modified and improved so that it had a higher sensitivity and reduced the amount of interference error or cross-talk error that it produced. An investigation into the distribution of strain, as well as the determination of sensor locations within the transducer construction was carried out by means of finite element analysis. In order to develop a prototype of a turning dynamometer, a number of piezoresistive strain gauges were utilized in the transducer. In order to determine sensitivity, linearity, hysteresis, and repeatability, calibration tests were performed in three directions that were perpendicular to one another. To investigate the dynamic properties and capabilities of the dynamometer for use in turning applications, both modal analysis and actual turning tests were performed. The results of the experiments demonstrated that the newly developed turning dynamometer is a realistic approach for measuring cutting force in machining without reliability and accuracy.

Potential of high-feed milling structured dies for material flow control in hot forming

Hot forming processes of complex parts with small cavities demand high-performance tools made of hardened steels. Their surface can be tribologically modified in order to control the material flow for improving the mold filling of functional elements. Surface structuring here offers great potential for adjusting the frictional properties and thus controlling the material flow in forming processes. In this study, high-feed milling (HFM) of surface structures in hot work tool steel (HWS) components is investigated. The process performance was determined by cutting force measurements and tool life tests. The achievable surface topography was measured and evaluated in terms of structure quality and roughness parameters, and friction properties were derived based on the results. In a hot ring compression test, the influence of certain structure variants on the material flow was analyzed. The results conclude that HFM is a suitable process for structuring HWS components with constant structure quality and low tool wear. In addition, a variety of structures showed significant influence on the hot ring compression test. This indicates a relevant potential of HFM for the modification of hardened tool surfaces to improve the performance of hot forming processes and increase the manufactural quality and productivity.

High frequency cutting force measurement during saw tooth chip formation of Al-7075-T6 for critical flow stress estimation

Shear banding is an unstable mode of deformation caused by material beginning to soften or weaken with additional strain, resulting in narrow bands of highly deformed material called shear bands. Shear bands occur in metal cutting when deforming material in the primary shear zone is subject to weakening by ductile damage and/or thermal softening by adiabatic heating. Recent work [1] has shown that the force supported by shear bands induced in hat-shaped test specimens subject to high-speed compression can be measured during the evolution of shear bands. This has given rise to the question whether very high band-width force measurement can be used to quantitatively measure the strain softening of material during high-speed machining. The challenge impeding measurement of cyclic changes in cutting and thrust force during shear banding cycles in orthogonal cutting is the rate at which these shear bands typically occur – from a few kHz to 100 kHz. This is well above the lowest natural frequency of even stiff cutting force dynamometer setups. This paper describes the development and validation of a high bandwidth dynamometer. This is used to measure both the cutting and thrust forces during orthogonal cutting of AA 7075-T6 with unprecedented fidelity. The critical flow stress at which flow softening initiates is calculated from the measured forces and chip morphology.

Development of a Shear-Type Dynamometer for High-Temperature Environment

To improve the accuracy of cutting force measurement and solve the problem of temperature interference in the cutting process, this paper proposes a new four-dimensional force measurement method that uses only y0-type quartz wafers. Firstly, put forward several arrangements of wafers, and establish the output efficiency model of different arrangement schemes. With the goal of maximum output efficiency, determine the optimal arrangement of the wafers. Subsequently, design two kinds of TDTD shear-type piezoelectric sensors, and obtain the performance of the sensor through calibration experiments. The structure of the dynamometer was optimized by using the finite element method. To obtain the lateral output efficiency of the dynamometer, a sensor stiffness measurement experiment was carried out. Finally, static calibration experiments and heat-force calibration experiments were performed on the new dynamometer, and a matrix was established to achieve crosstalk elimination. The experimental results show that the output error and crosstalk of the dynamometer are both < 0.5% at room temperature. The output error is < 1.23 (FS), and the crosstalk is < 3.4% at high temperatures. Compared with the existing research, the new force measurement method proposed in this paper has better accuracy. The new type of dynamometer could provide accurate data for future intelligent manufacturing, and has broad application prospects.

Cutting Force Measurement using Strain Gauge and Arduino for Monitoring of Turning Tool Post

The purpose of this project is to develop the measurement instrument of cutting force for turning tool post using strain gauge and Arduino. The forces developed when the tools are in contact with the work pieces are captured and transformed into the numerical form system. The captured cutting force signal were then amplified, undergo signal conditioning and converted to digital signals to be read by Arduino. After calibration tests on the x and y directions, with calculations, the corresponding force readings are obtained and displayed for real time monitoring. The results obtained proved its reliability and effectiveness for measuring cutting forces and displayed on a PC for monitoring purposes.

Review on sensor design for cutting force measurement

The measurement of cutting force is one of the key factors in determining the tool condition and improving machine reliability. Therefore, the cutting force measurement becomes crucial to improve the machining process. The cutting force can be measured with piezoelectric as well as piezoresistive transducers. The force measuring transducers with later ones are cost-effective and can be easily installed in any small/medium-scale enterprise. For this approach, the selection of sensing elements is essential. The various mechanical ring elements were used for sensing the deformation. The low-cost device can be affordable in small-scale industries. Along with cutting force, it is suggested to measure the vibration signals to analyze the machining dynamics of the process. The salient features and diverse force measuring transducers were discussed in this article. This paper aims to briefly review the existing design and performance of dynamometers used in modern manufacturing.

Research on Modeling of Milling Force of Ball-End Mill Cutter in Multi-hardness Splicing Area of Automobile Panel Die Steel

The structure and the cavity surface hardened steel mold of automobile cover is very complex. In the stamping process, the local structure bears higher extrusion stress than the type surface, which often causes local wear and even cracking. The process of multi hardness splicing joint is applied to ensure the service life of the die according to the features of each part of the mold. The impact load caused by the repeatedly cut-in which always leads to the instability of cutting force in the whole process. The machining quality of the mold surface is reduced. Aiming at the machining process of the ball-end milling cutter in the mold splicing area, the impact at the moment of contact between the cutter and the workpiece is analyzed. The instantaneous chip thickness model that considers impact factors and the state model that calibrates the cutting state by coefficients is established. Finally, the prediction model of the milling force of the splicing area is obtained. The model is verified based on the machining cutting force measurement experiment in the case of die hardened steel Cr12MoV with single hardness and multi-hardness splicing. The average prediction error of experiments and simulation results is within 10%, which proves the accuracy of the model. The results show that the model has certain guiding significance for the actual processing of the splicing area of automobile mold cover parts.

Dynamic modeling and in-process parametric compensation for fabricating micro straight thin walls by micromilling

A comprehensive dynamic model is introduced try to further reduce dimensional errors of micromilled micro straight thin walls based on an in-process cutting parameter compensation device. First, a mathematical model is established to predict the dynamic elastic deformation of the thin walls in the micromilling process. Next, the radial deformation and the runout of the cutter are modeled. Then, the comprehensive in-process parametric compensation model and strategy are established. Finally, a real-time in-process cutting force measurement and cutting parameter compensation device is applied to the micromilling system and thin wall fabrication experiments have been conducted. It shows that the comprehensive dimensional error model and iterative compensation method are effective, and the dimension and shape precision of the micro straight thin wall has been obviously improved after the compensation of the radial cutting depth. The average relative errors have been reduced from 6.86% to 1.10%∼1.70%. The in-process compensation method introduced in this study is efficient and convenient as long as compensation strategies are integrated in the controlling unit for a specific micromilling process.

Fabrication, Performance, Characterization and Experimental Calibration of Embedded Thin-Film Sensor for Tool Cutting Force Measurement.

Thin-film strain sensors are widely used because of their small volume, fast strain response and high measurement accuracy. Among them, the thin-film material and preparation process of thin-film strain sensors for force measurement are important aspects. In this paper, the preparation process parameters of the transition layer, insulating layer and Ni-Cr alloy layer in a thin-film strain sensor are analyzed and optimized, and the influence of each process parameter on the properties of the thin film are discussed. The surface microstructure of the insulating layer with Al2O3 or Si3N4 transition layers and the film without transition layer were observed by atomic force microscopy. It is analyzed that adding a transition layer between the stainless steel substrate and insulation layer can improve the adhesion and flatness of the insulation layer. The effects of process parameters on elastic modulus, nanohardness and strain sensitivity coefficient of the Ni-Cr resistance layer are discussed, and electrical parameters such as the resistance strain coefficient are analyzed and characterized. The static calibration of the thin-film strain sensor is carried out, and the relationship between the strain value and the output voltage is obtained. The results show that the thin-film strain sensor can obtain the strain generated by the cutting tool and transform it into an electrical signal with good linearity through the bridge, accurately measuring the cutting force.

Structural design and optimization of a turning tool embedded with thin-film strain sensors for in-process cutting force measurement

A tool system integrated with machining and measurement is constructed by using thin film strain sensors and tool integration technology, which provides a new research method for studying the machining mechanism and automatic monitoring of the machining process. In this paper, three kinds—elastic sleeve type, fast insert type, and insert type—of tool cutting force measurement systems of the turning tool embedded with thin-film micro-sensors are designed. High strain sensitivity can be obtained through setting the elastic region of the tool bar on the premise of meeting the tool strength and stiffness. The system can realize integration between the thin-film strain sensor and tool bar quickly and efficiently. It is simplified as a cantilever beam structure for analysis after setting the shape of the sensor elastic substrate as a rectangle. The expression between strain and deflection of the elastic substrate is established when the free end is subjected to tangential force and bending moment, and the influence of the substrate’s structural parameters on the deflection is analyzed. In order to further improve the strain effect, six kinds of other shapes of the substrate structure are optimized, deducing the expression between the structure parameters and deflection; the corresponding substrate structure atlas is established, comparing and analyzing the deflection of the rectangular structure substrate. Five kinds of metal substrate materials are selected. In the functional film system of the thin-film strain sensor, the scheme of aluminum oxide and titanium nitride as the transition layer, silicon nitride as the insulating layer, and Ni–Cr alloy as the resistance grid layer is adopted. The research results show that this scheme can improve the adhesion between the insulating layer and the substrate, improve the resistance sensitivity coefficient of the sensor, and meet the application requirements of the cutting force measurement system.

Evaluating alloy-718 machinability values modelling by using response surface methodology

With the development of the manufacturing industry, machining parameters and material processing efficiency are important due to cost, sustainability, and other parameters, which are determining factors for usage width, material choice, and production rate. Machinability and optimization are among the scientists' and industry workers' timely objectives, guiding the manufacturing industries. Thus, the study and analysis of parameters such as surface roughness, tool wear, and force application in superalloy machining would be beneficial in various fields of the manufacturing industry. In this work, RSM (surface response method) modelling and analysis of relationship Fx, Fy, Fz forces between surface roughness of Inconel-718 material, which is a very unique alloy in terms of corrosion resistance, high-temperature elevation, and fatigue values, is examined. From this work, it was found that an experimental design was prepared using the Taguchi method, and the required number of measurements and parameter values were determined with a small number of experiments. Then, the most ideal values were determined using the Response Surface Methodology and ANOVA method to determine the best parameter levels after the surface roughness and cutting forces measurements.

Development of a wireless torque and thrust force sensing system mounted on a rotary cutting tool holder.

Online monitoring of tool and chip removal conditions during cutting operations is required to improve productivity at the production site. This paper proposes a low-cost and highly reliable cutting force measurement method using a semiconductor strain sensor mounted on a rotary tool holder. In a previous study, it was shown that an abnormality such as tool breakage can be detected from the output of a strain sensor attached to a tool fixed on a lathe. In this study, two wireless systems were developed for supplying power to the sensor and communicating with it, and was applied to monitoring the drilling process. The experimental results showed good agreement between the strain sensor output and the output of a commercial cutting dynamometer in the drilling process. FFT analysis of the sensor output showed that chipping and breakage of the drill could be detected.

Spindle-integrated, sensor-based measurement system for cutting forces

The measurement of the cutting force allows the monitoring and improvement of cutting processes. However, due to high costs, low sensitivity, and limited flexibility, existing solutions for cutting force measurement in machine tools have not been established in the practice. This paper presents an approach for an industrial-suited force measurement system. Equipped with strain sensors, milling spindles are enabled to sense the cutting force. Firstly, the concept for the sensor system is introduced. Secondly, a prototypical realization of the measurement system in a commercial machining centre is presented. Finally, performance of the achieved measurement system is evaluated in cutting experiments.