Current Travel Behavior Research Articles

The genome as a record for environmental exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

With the government planning a congestion charging (CC) scheme for Jakarta, public support is regarded as a prerequisite for its implementation. Politicians typically see CC reform as a controversial policy if there is no public support. Yet a CC plan is currently under active development and remains under consideration as a way to mitigate the acute traffic congestion in Jakarta. The CC theme has been recognized as a powerful instrument in both delivering efficient road use and raising revenues. Studies indicate that revenue redistribution is one of the most important determinants of public support for such scheme. Given the absence of studies from the Asian megacity context, this paper presents a systematic study of how public perceptions relate to revenue spending choice behavior. A stated preference (SP) questionnaire is developed to investigate citizen’s perceptions of CC reform, their preferences for revenue redistribution and their current travel behavior. Using data collected using this SP questionnaire in 2013, a hybrid revenue allocation (HRA) model is formulated that captures the impact of tangible factors (i.e. charges, socio-demographic characteristics, travel behavior) and intangible factors (perceptions) during process of deciding among revenue spending alternatives. The proposed model is drawn from traditional utilitarian resource (time) allocation theory, with an extension consisting of latent constructs representing subjective individual psychological perceptions. We find that there is a strong correlation between revenue allocation preferences and an individual’s subjective psychological perceptions. The most preferred revenue allocations are for public transport improvements and traffic safety improvements, with 54% and 29% agreement, respectively. We find there is little support for spending revenues on other issues such as for stimulating local business (13%) and for parks/green spaces, driving education/enforcement and improving the parking system (4% in total). The findings of sensitivity analysis further disclose that the choice of spending on public transport improvements among respondents who frequently visit the central business district (CBD) is sensitive to the level of the CC charge, while for respondents who frequently enter the CBD by car and have a medium-high income the traffic safety allocation is sensitive to charge.

Does the Built Environment Explain Gender Gap in Cycling? a Study of Post-Secondary Students in Toronto, Canada

Background The benefits of cycling as a healthier and more sustainable transportation alternative to private automobile are well-documented. One key policy challenge is the significant gender gap in cycling that exists across urban regions in North America. The millennial generation can be an important target for cycling-related policy and programs, because typically they demonstrate a more positive attitude toward cycling compared to older generations. In this study, travel behaviour of post-secondary students in Toronto, Canada, was analyzed to explore potential gender-based differences in cycling uptake among the millennial generation. Both commute and non-commute trips were studied. Particular emphasis was placed on the potential influence of the built environment, travel preferences and attitudes on cycling behaviour. Methods Data came from the StudentMoveTO survey, which was conducted in Fall 2015. More than 15,000 students from 4 Toronto-area universities participated in the survey, and recorded detailed data on all trips taken in one day. Binomial logistic regression models were estimated to explore the correlates of cycling for both commute and non-commute trips. Separate models were estimated for female and male students to examine the difference in correlates across gender. Results Our results indicate that female students cycled less compared to male students for both commute (6.8% versus 10.3%) and non-commute (7.9% versus 11.6%) purposes. Travel preferences and attitudes were strongly associated with the likelihood of cycling, however, difference between men and women was only minor. Instead, neighbuorhood built environment-related correlates were noticeably different between female and male students. Access to dedicated cycling infrastructure such as a cycle track or bicycle lane, and high business density, were associated with higher odds of cycling to school, but only among female students. Further, high speed traffic was a significant barrier to cycling among female commuters. Such effects were not present when male commute trips were explored. On the contrary, these built environment characteristics did not explain female cycling for non-commute purposes, as much as they did for male students. Instead, access to cars had a stronger influence on their non-commute travel mode choice (OR = 0.48). Conclusions More male post-secondary students cycle for commute and non-commute purposes than female students. However, improved built environment may increase cycling among women, particularly for commuting. This research identifies potential avenues for policy intervention regarding the promotion of healthy and sustainable travel behavior among the millennial generation, who are understudied and somewhat under-represented in current travel behaviour research.

Inclusion of latent constructs in utilitarian resource allocation model for analyzing revenue spending options in congestion charging policy

With the government planning a congestion charging (CC) scheme for Jakarta, public support is regarded as a prerequisite for its implementation. Politicians typically see CC reform as a controversial policy if there is no public support. Yet a CC plan is currently under active development and remains under consideration as a way to mitigate the acute traffic congestion in Jakarta. The CC theme has been recognized as a powerful instrument in both delivering efficient road use and raising revenues. Studies indicate that revenue redistribution is one of the most important determinants of public support for such scheme. Given the absence of studies from the Asian megacity context, this paper presents a systematic study of how public perceptions relate to revenue spending choice behavior. A stated preference (SP) questionnaire is developed to investigate citizen’s perceptions of CC reform, their preferences for revenue redistribution and their current travel behavior. Using data collected using this SP questionnaire in 2013, a hybrid revenue allocation (HRA) model is formulated that captures the impact of tangible factors (i.e. charges, socio-demographic characteristics, travel behavior) and intangible factors (perceptions) during process of deciding among revenue spending alternatives. The proposed model is drawn from traditional utilitarian resource (time) allocation theory, with an extension consisting of latent constructs representing subjective individual psychological perceptions. We find that there is a strong correlation between revenue allocation preferences and an individual’s subjective psychological perceptions. The most preferred revenue allocations are for public transport improvements and traffic safety improvements, with 54% and 29% agreement, respectively. We find there is little support for spending revenues on other issues such as for stimulating local business (13%) and for parks/green spaces, driving education/enforcement and improving the parking system (4% in total). The findings of sensitivity analysis further disclose that the choice of spending on public transport improvements among respondents who frequently visit the central business district (CBD) is sensitive to the level of the CC charge, while for respondents who frequently enter the CBD by car and have a medium-high income the traffic safety allocation is sensitive to charge.

Hysteresis & Urban Rail

Cities are endowed with and accumulate natural and constructed assets based on their unique histories, which in turn define the choice set of the present. But, common practice is that current behaviour can be described without reference to past circumstances. This work departs from that practice by examining the effects of historical urban rail on current residential location and travel behaviour, from the era of horsecars (1865) and streetcars (1925) to the present in Boston. It uses tract level data to explore the hysteretical effects of past access to rail—the extent to which the urban system retains the impacts of rail even when it no longer exists. Current density and travel behaviour are measurably influenced by past access to rail. These findings are robust to a series of alternate causal, functional, and spatial specifications. The built environment and demographic patterns are found to be the strongest mechanisms for these persistent effects. Past access to rail has shaped the city, and that shape has, in turn, affected travel behaviour. For density and auto ownership there is also a residual measurable effect of past access unexplained by the built environment or demographic patterns. This research shows that past rail access continues to reverberate in current residential location and travel behaviour. These findings of hysteresis add to an understanding of the long-term impacts of rail infrastructure, and suggest that if higher density and lower levels of auto ownership are desirable, policymakers should focus on reuse of areas that were built around rail.

The Shock Heard round the Suburbs: Assessing the Vulnerability, Resilience, and Transportation Affordability of Higher Fuel Price Scenarios

With transportation the second highest household expenditure, understanding the disproportionate impact that a drastic increase in the gas price might have on a major city and region is vital. This study sought to increase the understanding of resiliency, vulnerability, and transportation affordability issues by asking the following questions: What would happen if the cost to drive suddenly doubled or tripled? Who would be better off and why? How much would residency near downtown or near one's job make a difference? What would matter in terms of transit infrastructure? How much of a role would current travel behavior play? This study derived resiliency scenarios in which the cost to drive increased one and one-half, two, and three times with the use of a multinomial logistic regression mode choice model developed with major travel surveys conducted in 1997 and 2008, a time period during which gas prices more than tripled. The focus of this study was on work trips, which were those trips most likely to be nondiscretionary. The annual cost to commute was estimated as a percentage of the median household income. Transit infrastructure, active transportation, built environment, land use, and socioeconomic status were assessed for their influences on resiliency, vulnerability, and transportation affordability. Although high income represented one path to resilience, the study results suggested that higher resilience could also be found in locations with proximity to high levels of employment, with more compact and connected street networks, and with better transit infrastructure. Beyond current travel behaviors, a significant option value to transit was also found in the resiliency scenarios. Transportation choice was found to create network redundancy and to facilitate adaptability under extreme conditions.

Exploring the Mode Change Behavior of Park-and-Ride Users

This paper investigates the mode change behavior of park-and-ride (P&R) users, which is of considerable significance to analyze the effectiveness of P&R site on the commuters’ travel mode change as well as the increase of public transport mode share. Data from an intercept interview survey conducted at different P&R facilities in Metropolitan Melbourne is used. A questionnaire containing revealed preference (RP) and stated preference (SP) questions is used to interview the individuals who park at the facility and catch public transport to go to city. This study firstly aims to know the factors affecting current travel behavior using RP data and secondly to investigate the importance of the factors on influencing the commuters’ decision of travel mode choice using the SP data. The empirical models using multinomial logistic regression reveal that travel time taken by transit vehicle and transfer time at P&R stations are the primary factors affecting individuals’ decision on choosing public transport whereas parking fare is the additional factor affecting commuters’ choice of driving. Based on the results of this study, the effectiveness of P&R scheme on commuters’ travel mode change is evaluated which would be helpful to shed lights on the future construction of P&R sites.

Baby boomers’ mobility patterns and preferences: What are the implications for future transport?

The demographic grand challenge of population ageing will be reflected in most areas of society and, to a great extent, in the area of transportation as well. It will have an impact on, for example, travel demand, infrastructure needs, traffic safety and the climate. The post-World War II cohorts, the so-called “baby boomers”, will comprise a large share of tomorrow's older population, and it is expected that they will differ from their parents’ generation when they grow old. In order to better understand how the ageing baby boomers may affect future travel demand, the travel behaviour and expectations of Danish baby boomers were analysed based on 1772 standardised telephone interviews. In general, the baby boomers reported being healthy, independent and highly (auto)mobile. They were also optimistic regarding their level of mobility, capability to use a variety of travel modes and ability to lead an independent life in the future. However, there were significant gender differences in terms of present and expected car use in old age, which were somewhat similar to those observed in older cohorts. In addition, different sub groups of baby boomers could be identified based on their future expectations: the so-called Flexibles, Independents and Restricted subjects. The segments showed significant differences in current travel behaviour and living conditions, as well as some similarities to former segments of older road users. The results indicate that the baby boomers are likely to be strong consumers of the transport system also as they age, but that the group is also heterogeneous. Thus, overly optimistic scenarios about independent baby boomers who differ from the previous generations and whose need for external support in old age will be minimal may be unrealistic.

Missing Links

In the past several decades, planners and policy makers have focused on creating more balanced transportation systems that included better transit service as well as improved options for pedestrians and bicyclists. Pedestrian accessibility is vital to the success of this mode because transit users are likely to walk on at least one end of their trip. As a result, practitioners have focused on improving pedestrian environments in station areas. Pedestrian accessibility studies have focused on formal pedestrian links such as roads, sidewalks, and multiuse trails. However, a small but important body of literature suggests that the informal pedestrian environments play an important but often overlooked role in pedestrian accessibility. Social paths are informal routes that emerge in grassy areas because of footfall. Social paths have formed at numerous suburban transit stops and show deficiencies in the design of formal pedestrian networks. Because current travel behavior studies omit informal pedestrian networks, their results may be inaccurate and result in misguided policy. This study identified social paths at 12 light rail stations in Denver, Colorado, and Dallas, Texas. With two pedestrian accessibility metrics, the formal pedestrian environment was compared with a joint formal–informal pedestrian environment that includes social paths. This study makes the argument that social paths are important components of station-area pedestrian accessibility and should be incorporated into future travel behavior studies and pedestrian improvement projects.

Quantifying the transport-related impacts of parental school choice in England

School travel is becoming increasingly car-based and this is leading to many environmental and health implications for children all over the world. One of several reasons for this is that journey to school distances have increased over time. This is a trend that has been reinforced in some countries by the adoption of so-called ‘school choice’ policies, whereby parents can apply on behalf of their child(ren) to attend any school, and not only the school they live closest to. This paper examines the traffic and environmental impacts of the school choice policy in England. It achieves this by analysing School Census data from 2009 from the Department for Education. Multinomial logit modelling and mixed multinomial logit modelling are used to illustrate the current travel behaviour of English children in their journey to school and examine how there can be a significant reduction in vehicle miles travelled, CO2 emissions and fuel consumption if the ‘school choice’ policy is removed. The model shows that when school choice was replaced by a policy where each child only travelled to their ‘nearest school’ several changes occurred in English school travel. Vehicle Miles Travelled (VMT) by motorised transport fell by 1 % for car travel and 10 % for bus travel per day. The reduction in vehicle miles travelled could lead to less congestion on the roads during the morning rush hour and less cars driving near school gates. Mode choice changed in the modelled scenario. Car use fell from 32 to 22 %. Bus use fell from 12 to 7 %, whilst NMT saw a rise of 17 %. With more children travelling to school by walking or cycling the current epidemic of childhood obesity could also be reduced through active travel.

Foreign living experience as a predictor of domestic travel behavior

Travel behavior researchers have long been interested in various factors influencing how individuals make transportation decisions. Research has shown that foreign born residents and recent immigrants to the US exhibit significantly different travel behavior than native born populations in the same regions. This paper expands on that existing research by examining the travel behavior data of 662 students from Brigham Young University (52.1% of whom have lived outside the United States for more than 60 consecutive days). First the paper identifies if an individual’s experience living abroad results in a change in travel behavior upon their return to the United States; second, if the foreign location where the experience was gained influences any behavioral change, and if so which regions of the world produce the greatest influence?; and third, if the duration of an individual’s residence abroad affects their travel behavior and transportation perceptions upon returning to the United States. The analysis revealed that individuals who have lived abroad do exhibit a significant change in travel behavior upon returning to the United States, and the continent where the individual lived does significantly affect their change in travel behavior. However it appears that this change in behavior upon their return to the United States may be a regression to the mean, manifested by individuals adopting travel behavior similar to the transportation culture of their domestic environment. The location and duration of foreign experience does not have a significant impact on the current travel behavior of the individuals represented in this sample.

The socio-cognitive links between road pricing acceptability and changes in travel-behavior

The objective of this study is to examine the effect of road pricing on people’s tendency to adapt their current travel behavior. To this end, the relationship between changes in activity-travel behavior on the one hand and public acceptability and its most important determinants on the other are investigated by means of a stated adaptation experiment. Using a two-stage hierarchical model, it was found that behavioral changes themselves are not dependent on the perceived acceptability of road pricing itself, and that only a small amount of the variability in the behavioral changes were explained by socio-cognitive factors. The lesson for policy makers is that road pricing charges must surpass a minimum threshold in order to entice changes in activity-travel behavior and that the benefits of road pricing should be clearly communicated, taking into account the needs and abilities of different types of travelers. Secondly, earlier findings concerning the acceptability of push measures were validated, supporting transferability of results. In line with other studies, effectiveness, fairness and personal norm all had a significant direct impact on perceived acceptability. Finally, the relevance of using latent factors rather than aggregate indicators was underlined.

Identifying potential cycling market segments in Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania

Most travel behaviour studies that seek to promote cycling define market segments based on socio-demographics, travel mode use or attitudes. They do not address the stages of change process in travel behaviour, whereas this information can be instrumental in influencing travel behaviour change. This paper adopts the stages of change model to identify potential cycling market segments and to analyse and profile each of the market segments based on socio-economic factors, current travel behaviour, attitudes, perceptions and motivations. A survey was conducted among 620 individual regular commuters in the city of Dar-es-Salaam. On the basis of cycling behaviour attitudinal-variable statements, as developed from the stages of change model, the survey data were classified in six different segments: pre-contemplation, contemplation, prepared for action, action, maintenance and relapse. The study revealed that the different segments have different needs and are motivated by different factors suggesting that they need to be treated in different ways. These market segments can have important implications for designing cycling policies and promotional strategies that best serve the needs of each segment. The results indicate that urban policies and marketing strategies which aim to promote bicycle use may first target the contemplation, prepared for action and action segments that are most motivated to change and willing to cycle.

Evaluating school travel initiatives and promoting ‘healthy travel’ through PSHCE

The number of primary school children travelling to school by car in the UK has almost doubled from 22% to 43% in 20 years. A governmental policy response is school travel plans (STPs). This paper reports the findings of an empirical evaluation designed to measure the effectiveness of the travel initiative at three schools. Quantitative and qualitative data were collected using questionnaires or travel diaries (n=555, Years 3 to 6) and focus groups with pupils in Years 5 and 6 (21 groups, n=90). A walking bus scheme operated successfully at one school but most of the children shared similar attitudes towards transport modes. Two issues regarding the data collection and coverage of the national evaluation of STPs are raised and the implications for research practice discussed. The PSHCE (personal, social health and citizenship education) curriculum offers scope for schools to incorporate their own evaluations to overcome the problems identified. Education for sustainable development (ESD) has international significance and the current and future travel behaviour of children is germane to this. Ideas and resources to promote this through PSHCE are presented.

低炭素社会に向けた個人の運転量半減化プランの構成分析

Although the importance of urban compaction for reducing the traffic environment load is recognized, travel behavioral compaction—automobile use reduction through individual effort—should be investigated to achieve substantial reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. This questionnaire–survey study solicits inhabitants' views on the possibility of reducing current driving by half and inquires about respondents' plans to do so. Results reveal the possibility of reduced automobile use. Finally, we analyzed the influences of current residence location and travel behavior on the respondents' reported possibility and plans.

A structural equation model of activity participation and travel behavior using longitudinal data

This paper presents a dynamic structural equation model (SEM) that explicitly addresses complicated causal relationships among socio-demographics, activity participation, and travel behavior. The model assumes that activity participation and travel patterns in the current year are affected by those in previous years. Using the longitudinal dataset collected from Puget sound transportation panel ‘wave 3’ and ‘wave 4,’ these assumptions are tested with suggested SEMs. Within each wave, the model is structured to have a three-level causal relationship that describes interactions among endogenous variables under time-budget constraints. The resulting coefficients representing the activity durations indicate that people tend to allocate their time according to the importance and the obligation of the activity level. Results from the dynamic SEM confirm the fact that people's current activity and travel behavior do have effects on those in the future. The resulting model also shows that activity participation and travel behavior in ‘wave 3’ are closely related to those in ‘wave 4.’ These explicit explanations of relationships among variables could provide important perspectives in the activity-based approach which becomes recognized as a better analytical tool for the transportation planning and policy making process.

Examining Temporal Effects of Lifecycle Events on Transport Mode Choice Decisions

This paper describes the first results of a study on the impact of events on transport mode choice decisions. An Internet-based survey was designed to collect data concerning seven structural lifecycle events. In addition, respondents answered questions about personal and household characteristics, possession and availability of transport modes and their current travel behaviour. In total, 710 respondents completed the online survey. The complexity of transport mode choice is modelled using a Bayesian Decision Network. This paper focuses only on the time influence of events on transport mode choice decisions. We assume that people change or at least reconsider their behaviour after a structural lifecycle event, at times directly after experiencing a change and at times only after a period of time. We estimated a multinomial choice model to estimate the effect of these structural events, and in particular of the length of the time elapsed, on transport mode choice.

The impact of “free” public transport: The case of Brussels

Public transport subsidies play an important role in the present Belgian mobility policy. The introduction of “free” bus transport in Hasselt in 1997 was an important event. Later, the Flemish government in cooperation with the regional public transport company elaborated the so-called “third-payer system” for target groups. The price of public transport is not paid by the user or the provider, but partly or completely by a “third party”. In how far these measures contribute to a more sustainable mobility system has caused much debate. In the academic year 2003–2004, a “free public transport” initiative was introduced for the students of Flemish colleges and universities in Brussels. These students had the opportunity to obtain a refunded annual season ticket on Brussels public transport. Brussels was selected for the case study, because in the same city there is a group of students that benefits from the measure, and another group (students from French speaking universities and colleges) that does not. In order to examine the effects of this measure, we conducted a survey among the students to examine their present travel behaviour (number of trips, motives, modal choice …) and the changes with the travel behaviour of the previous year. In addition we compare the current travel behaviour between the students benefiting from the measure, and those who do not.

The Hidden Demand for Participation in Activities and Travel by Persons who are Visually Impaired

As part of a larger field experiment using remote infrared audible signage, 30 participants who were legally blind provided data about their current travel behavior and activities, the number and types of additional trips they desired to make, and what trips they would make if more environmental cues were available. The results showed a large demand for participation in activities and travel that is not being met, but would be if relevant information was available.

Targeting travel awareness campaigns: Which individuals are more likely to switch from car to other transport for the journey to work?

This paper adds to the work on the subject of car dependency and seeks to give more precise guidance to those responsible for promoting travel awareness campaigns by exploring which car commuters are likely to be the best targets for marketing non-car modes. The findings from research examining the relationship between current travel behaviour and attitudes to changing behaviour are reported. It is suggested that whilst the majority of car commuters are highly car orientated and not susceptible to mode change a significant minority are susceptible to change. This group are more likely to be male, in their 30s and, most importantly undertake short distance work journeys of 5 miles or less. In addition to identifying target groups, the paper provides guidance on the policy changes required in order to encourage a shift from the car to an alternative mode. It is clear that raising individual awareness is an important factor in addressing the issue of car dependency.