Current Manufacturing Practices Research Articles

A Universal Framework for Skill-Based Cyber-Physical Production Systems

In the vision of smart manufacturing and Industry 4.0, it is vital to automate production processes. There is a significant gap in current practices, where the derivation of production processes from product data still heavily relies on human expertise, leading to inefficiencies and a shortage of skilled labor. This paper proposes a universal framework for skill-based cyber–physical production systems (CPPS) that formalizes production knowledge into machine-processable formats. Key contributions include a novel conceptual model for skill-based production processes and an automated method to derive production plans from high-level CPPS skills for production planning and execution. This framework aims to enhance smart manufacturing by enabling more efficient, transparent, and automated production planning, thereby addressing the critical gap in current manufacturing practices. The framework’s benefits include making production processes explainable, optimizing multi-criteria systems, and eliminating human biases in process selection. A case study illustrates the framework’s application, demonstrating its current capabilities and potential for modern manufacturing.

Flash-within-flash synthesis of gram-scale solid-state materials.

Sustainable manufacturing that prioritizes energy efficiency, minimal water use, scalability and the ability to generate diverse materials is essential to advance inorganic materials production while maintaining environmental consciousness. However, current manufacturing practices are not yet equipped to fully meet these requirements. Here we describe a flash-within-flash Joule heating (FWF) technique-a non-equilibrium, ultrafast heat conduction method-to prepare ten transition metal dichalcogenides, three group XIV dichalcogenides and nine non-transition metal dichalcogenide materials, each in under 5 s while in ambient conditions. FWF achieves enormous advantages in facile gram scalability and in sustainable manufacturing criteria when compared with other synthesis methods. Also, FWF allows the production of phase-selective and single-crystalline bulk powders, a phenomenon rarely observed by any other synthesis method. Furthermore, FWF MoSe2 outperformed commercially available MoSe2 in tribology, showcasing the quality of FWF materials. The capability for atom substitution and doping further highlights the versatility of FWF as a general bulk inorganic materials synthesis protocol.

Advancements in sustainable proton-conducting electrochemical cells: Direct recycling of sintered nickel oxide-doped barium zirconate half cells

The ongoing evolution in energy production and conversion technologies has brought solid oxide electrochemical cells (SOCs) to the forefront, recognized for their high efficiency and environmental benefits. However, establishing sustainable and scalable manufacturing processes for SOCs presents formidable challenges, including sourcing large-scale raw materials and implementing effective recycling methods for spent cells and manufacturing scraps. In response, we demonstrate closed-loop direct recycling of proton-conducting solid oxide electrochemical half cells, incorporating active comminution and cell regeneration using the recycled materials. This innovative approach achieves over 92 % material recovery and an impressive 100 % recovery in full cell performance, addressing a significant gap in current sustainable manufacturing practices while setting a new standard for the industry. This technology not only addresses a significant gap in current sustainable manufacturing practices but also sets a precedent for future advancements in the sustainable SOC field, potentially influencing broader practices in the recycling of multi-functional ceramics.

Lean implementation barriers in the apparel industry in Bangladesh

PurposeIn the highly competitive business landscape, manufacturing firms need to adopt an effective manufacturing strategy to attain a successful world-class manufacturing status. Over the past few decades, the lean manufacturing (LM) approach has gained recognition as one of the foremost strategies for enhancing performance. However, the implementation of LM poses significant challenges due to several barriers. The purpose of this paper is to investigate the primary barriers to lean implementation within the apparel industry.Design/methodology/approachThis paper used an exploratory study approach, using a three-part structured questionnaire to assess the level of agreement on different lean barriers. The measurement of these barriers was conducted using a five-point Likert scale. Empirical data were collected from 177 apparel companies located in Bangladesh.FindingsThe findings of the research highlight that the primary obstacles to implementing LI include a lack of understanding of the lean manufacturing system (LMS), the manufacturing process, the company culture and resistance from employees.Research limitations/implicationsThis paper could potentially limit the generalizability of this research, as it exclusively examines a single manufacturing sector – the apparel industry.Practical implicationsThis paper will help practitioners in finding solutions to resolve discrepancies between current manufacturing practices and the LMS.Originality/valueThis paper fulfills an identified need to examine the extent of lean adoption within the apparel industry of Bangladesh.

Features and Sustainable Design of Firefighting Safety Footwear for Fire Extinguishing and Rescue Operations

Firefighters are regularly exposed to risk of injuries as a result of their intervention activities connected with hazards from fire and explosion, as well as due to carrying heavy personal working equipment and injured victims from accidents. Another hazardous factor is working under unfavorable weather conditions and also moving on slippery or bumpy surfaces. Employers provide personal protective work equipment to employees if a hazard cannot be eliminated or reduced by technical means, such as means of collective protection or methods and forms of work organization. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) should provide effective protection against existing and foreseeable hazards and should not in itself create a greater risk. It should be adapted to the existing and predictable working conditions and working environment at the work site, meet the criteria of ergonomics and the health condition of an employee as well as be suitable and adapted to the wearer’s body so that, if possible, there is no risk of harm to the employee’s health. The aim of this Special Issue is to explore the limits of sustainable implementation of additive technologies within current manufacturing practices and current requirements for personal protective equipment for firefighters. More precisely, the goal of this special article is to show new ideas in firefighting footwear such as a quick donning and doffing system as well as various other improvements and sustainable design of firefighting footwear. The aim is to present new ideas and concepts, the latest advances, and technical tools supporting the sustainable use of protective firefighting footwear. Special attention will be paid to standards that ensure the highest standard and quality.

Control of Nanoparticle Dispersion, SEI Composition, and Electrode Morphology Enable Long Cycle Life in High Silicon Content, Nanoparticle-Based Composite Anodes for Lithium-Ion Batteries

Striking a balance between high theoretical capacity, Earth abundance, and compatibility with existing manufacturing infrastructure, silicon is one of the few materials that meets the requirements for a next-generation anode for rechargeable lithium-ion batteries. Due to complications with extreme volume changes during charging/discharging and reactive interfacial chemistries, however, the cycle-life of silicon-based composite anodes is unacceptable for broad use. Developing a majority silicon composite anode formulation that overcomes these challenges and is compatible with current industry manufacturing practices requires materials and chemical engineering solutions that account for both electrode morphology and interfacial chemistry. Here, we synthesize surface-functionalized silicon nanocrystals that enable a highly dispersed and homogeneous slurry that can easily be integrated into standard electrode fabrication process. We use this formulation to print a 76 wt. % silicon composite electrode. We show that the contents and the morphology of the silicon electrolyte interphase – a determining factor in the cycle life of silicon-based anodes – can be controlled with a post-synthetic thermal curing procedure. When paired against a capacity-matched lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide LiNi0.8Mn0.1Co0.1O2 cathode, the cell retains 72% of its capacity through 1000 charge/discharge cycles while delivering an initial anode specific capacity of nearly 1000 mAh/g and an areal capacity of 2.55 mAh/cm2. Figure 1

Personalised Production in the Age of Circular Additive Manufacturing

This research examines the opportunities provided by advances in digital manufacturing technologies for the provision of products designed to meet the needs of an individual consumer. The ability to co-create products with customers could enable mass personalisation to become a popular and fast-growing mode of production. Additive manufacturing, in both 3D and 4D printing forms, opens up new opportunities for circular economy-compliant production of such highly personalised products. Industry 4.0 has been seen by many as an agenda for the utilisation of interconnected digital technologies in industry, with a particular focus on manufacturing. Industry 5.0 seeks to address challenges that have grown in importance since the inception of Industry 4.0, such as the efficient inclusion of human worker skills in tandem with automation solutions, to address highly complex manufacturing scenarios while mitigating many of the environmental issues inherent with current manufacturing practices, while using circular economy principles. In examining the production of smart fabrics, this paper puts forward a framework for circular production of additively manufactured personalised products, co-designed with inputs from consumers.

Analysis of Manufacturing Methods and Die Design for Rice Transplanter Claws and Combine Harvester Blades in Bangladesh

High labor wages brought on by a shrinking agricultural labor force, as well as promises of increased crop yields and decreased labor requirements, have spurred the adoption of agricultural mechanization in Bangladesh. Due to these factors, the market for more complex agricultural machinery, such as rice transplanters and combine harvesters, is growing substantially in Bangladesh. As a result, a market has developed for agricultural workshops to manufacture spare parts within the local communities. However, the current manufacturing practices of local agricultural workshops limit their ability to produce high-quality parts that can compete with spare parts imported from China. This paper presents the analysis of the manufacturing processes used in the manufacturing of two key spare parts for the mechanization of planting and harvesting in Bangladesh: rice transplanter claws and combine harvester blades. The manufacturing processes proposed in this paper use machine tools and manufacturing processes that are ubiquitous in Bangladesh, such as grinders and drill presses. Additional manufacturing processes, such as blanking and forming with punch and die sets, are proposed as the methods for increasing product quality and reducing the manufacturing time required to produce complex geometries, such as those found on rice transplanter claws and combine harvester blades. The results from the experimental testing and the finite element simulations of the deformation processes indicate that local manufacturing of high-quality rice transplanter claws and combine harvester blades is viable with the proposed manufacturing processes.

Recent Advances in Biologic Therapeutic N-Glycan Preparation Techniques and Analytical Methods for Facilitating Biomanufacturing Automation

N-glycosylation is a post-translational modification that occurs during the production of monoclonal antibody (mAb) therapeutics. During production of mAb based therapeutics the use of various hosts and cell culture additives attribute to glycan heterogeneity. The safety and efficacy of monoclonal antibodies with mechanism of actions that utilize Fc effector functions can be negatively impacted by glycan heterogeneity and thus is often considered a critical quality attribute (CQA). In this mini review, we discuss recent advances in mAb sample preparation specifically focused on denaturation, enzymatic processing, and released glycans derivatization methods. Additionally, we review the recent advances in characterization of released and intact N-glycans using chromatography, capillary electrophoresis, and mass spectrometry techniques with a focus on rapid, automated approaches that support analysis of glycosylation profiles of biopharmaceuticals. We delve into advances within sample preparation techniques that allow for rapid and robust sample preparation as well as how these techniques are being used for innovative at-line high-throughput screening and process analytical technology (PAT). The future of biomanufacturing is focused on decreasing process costs while increasing process understanding and quality for novel biologic candidates and biosimilars. Therefore, advances in PAT for biotherapeutics will positively influence current manufacturing practices and enable further bioprocess automation.

Introducing Mobile Collaborative Robots into Bioprocessing Environments: Personalised Drug Manufacturing and Environmental Monitoring

Personalised therapeutic drugs are the future of the medical drug sector. For manufacturers, this will require the flexibility to produce many different unique batches within a given facility. This research paper aims to demonstrate the potential of mobile collaborative robots for improving current manufacturing practices in personalised therapeutics. The benefits and challenges of introducing robots in biologics are explored, including current practices, limitations, likely future practices, and the market outlook. Experiments demonstrating the application of a mobile collaborative robot to perform three different routine tasks is presented. These experiments include the transport of centrifugal tubes, manipulation of infusion bags, and scanning of Petri dishes for environmental monitoring. The investigations highlight the potential of collaborative mobile robotic platforms for automating the routine tasks carried out within the biomanufacturing sector.

Role of Standards as an Enabler in a Digital Remanufacturing Industry

There is plenty of research describing remanufacturing (reman) as the ultimate form of recycling. However, few studies have shown how standards that provide universally accepted definitions and practices can shift towards digitization and how digital technology can act as a catalyst for digital reman. Furthermore, there is no clear direction as to why and how standards and digital technology should work together in reman. Only minimal research (one article from the SCOPUS database) has explored the intersection of these three areas: reman challenges, standards, and digital technology. Many challenges that reman companies face prevent them from successfully transitioning to sustainable production methods. The challenges include high cost of resources, complex parts design, limited core availability, lack of internationally accepted definitions and protocols, poor design of reverse logistics networks, and poor consumer perceptions. On the other hand, digital technology can act as an enabler fueling environmental resilience through innovation. This paper studies how standards can play a role in helping digital technology solve reman challenges, thereby achieving the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal and providing significant opportunities for innovation for small and large enterprises transitioning towards digital reman. The current study is validated by highly experienced reman professionals using the analytical hierarchical process. It is intended to help practitioners assess their organization’s current manufacturing practices and improve resource productivity and business growth using the identified standards and technologies. Three-dimensional printing was found to have the most potential in solving reman challenges. Surprisingly, the Internet of Things ranked low despite lacking information on used products or cores being a significant challenge for suppliers.

Production of Bioethanol—A Review of Factors Affecting Ethanol Yield

Fossil fuels are a major contributor to climate change, and as the demand for energy production increases, alternative sources (e.g., renewables) are becoming more attractive. Biofuels such as bioethanol reduce reliance on fossil fuels and can be compatible with the existing fleet of internal combustion engines. Incorporation of biofuels can reduce internal combustion engine (ICE) fleet carbon dioxide emissions. Bioethanol is typically produced via microbial fermentation of fermentable sugars, such as glucose, to ethanol. Traditional feedstocks (e.g., first-generation feedstock) include cereal grains, sugar cane, and sugar beets. However, due to concerns regarding food sustainability, lignocellulosic (second-generation) and algal biomass (third-generation) feedstocks have been investigated. Ethanol yield from fermentation is dependent on a multitude of factors. This review compares bioethanol production from a range of feedstocks, and elaborates on available technologies, including fermentation practices. The importance of maintaining nutrient homeostasis of yeast is also examined. The purpose of this review is to provide industrial producers and policy makers insight into available technologies, yields of bioethanol achieved by current manufacturing practices, and goals for future innovation.

Strong Expansion of Human Regulatory T Cells for Adoptive Cell Therapy Results in Epigenetic Changes Which May Impact Their Survival and Function

Adoptive transfer of regulatory T cells (Treg) is a promising new therapeutic option to treat detrimental inflammatory conditions after transplantation and during autoimmune disease. To reach sufficient cell yield for treatment, ex vivo isolated autologous or allogenic Tregs need to be expanded extensively in vitro during manufacturing of the Treg product. However, repetitive cycles of restimulation and prolonged culture have been shown to impact T cell phenotypes, functionality and fitness. It is therefore critical to scrutinize the molecular changes which occur during T cell product generation, and reexamine current manufacturing practices. We performed genome-wide DNA methylation profiling of cells throughout the manufacturing process of a polyclonal Treg product that has proven safety and hints of therapeutic efficacy in kidney transplant patients. We found progressive DNA methylation changes over the duration of culture, which were donor-independent and reproducible between manufacturing runs. Differentially methylated regions (DMRs) in the final products were significantly enriched at promoters and enhancers of genes implicated in T cell activation. Additionally, significant hypomethylation did also occur in promoters of genes implicated in functional exhaustion in conventional T cells, some of which, however, have been reported to strengthen immunosuppressive effector function in Tregs. At the same time, a set of reported Treg-specific demethylated regions increased methylation levels with culture, indicating a possible destabilization of Treg identity during manufacturing, which was independent of the purity of the starting material. Together, our results indicate that the repetitive TCR-mediated stimulation lead to epigenetic changes that might impact functionality of Treg products in multiple ways, by possibly shifting to an effector Treg phenotype with enhanced functional activity or by risking destabilization of Treg identity and impaired TCR activation. Our analyses also illustrate the value of epigenetic profiling for the evaluation of T cell product manufacturing pipelines, which might open new avenues for the improvement of current adoptive Treg therapies with relevance for conventional effector T cell products.

(Invited) High-Throughput, In-line Quality Control of Fuel Cell Materials

Electrochemical energy conversion technologies are actively being commercialized for large-scale applications, such as zero-pollution automotive systems. There has been significant progress in pioneering research, such as the discovery and development of new membranes, catalysts, gas diffusion layers, membrane electrode assemblies, and operating conditions. These technologies need to make the jump from laboratory research-scale to robust production-scale. In many cases, scale up requires compromises on materials, methodology, and quality control of each component. Current manufacturing practices generally rely heavily on manual, visual inspection of individual components followed by cell testing to indicate material issues, which leads to delayed correction of production issues and added cost in the form of additional labor and expensive material loss. Reducing the extent of the manual labor and compromises during scale up requires addition and integration of in-line, real-time, quality control systems that provide feedback for process correction.Mainstream Engineering has developed, built and evaluated an in-line optical scanner based inspection system with the capability to determine membrane thickness, identify defects, and measure catalyst variability and loading. The inspection system samples the entire surface so that defects in the materials can be identified and selectively removed prior to assembly. We have worked with our partners to characterize a wide range of membranes and catalysts types using off-line techniques including x-ray fluorescence, ion-coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, and IR thermography to identify defects and their impact on cell performance. This data was then used to build calibrations and develop in-line, automated detection algorithms that can be used during full-scale production of materials, to quantify and isolate defects at multiple stages of the production process. We have used our in-line system to characterize a variety of materials including proton exchange membrane, anion exchange membrane, fluorinated and hydrocarbon membranes, catalyst coated membranes, gas diffusion layers, and gas diffusion electrodes in a variety of configurations and chemistries. This process can be rapidly adapted and applied to new materials and processing approaches as they are developed in the future order to help reduce development time in, and transition from research to production systems, as well as providing high-throughput, real-time diagnostic capability for commercial applications.

Techno-economic assessment of calcium sulfoaluminate clinker production using elemental sulfur as raw material

The foreseen decarbonisation of the cement industry by 2050 will require a combination of different measures in the current manufacturing practices such as the improvement of the energy efficiency, the use of alternative fuels, the reduction of the clinker to cement ratio, and the integration of carbon capture, especially beyond the year 2030. The production of alternative binders, for the substitution of the current product families of cement, is under investigation due to its significant potential in emissions reduction, although robust and agreed life cycle assessment methodologies are still claimed by the industry in this field. Calcium sulfoaluminate (CSA) cements appear as a promising alternative to Portland cements due to the significant reduction of the direct emissions of carbon dioxide caused by the lower need of limestone and fuel. However, they require sulfate and higher inputs of aluminium oxide, sourced from bauxite. This study focuses on the techno-economic performance, in the geographical scope of Qatar, of a novel CSA production method consisting of the combustion of sulfur to supply SO3/SO2 to the clinkering reaction. This new approach is proven to reduce the associated greenhouse gases emissions of Portland cement clinker production, while, in general, CSA clinker production costs are higher than those for Portland cement clinker. Nevertheless, CSA has a competitive CO2 avoidance cost, provided that the economics of raw materials supply, such as bauxite, favours its production; an aspect that is further emphasised in a prospective analysis towards more restrictive climate policies.

Process Monitoring and Fault Prediction in Multivariate Time Series Using Bag-of-Words

Multivariate time series (MTS) arise due to multisensor data collection in manufacturing. These data are complex in the sense that attributes have a varying scale, volitivity, continuity, and so on, and interattribute dependence also appears, which can mask the inherent information about system health status. Conventional machine learning-based process monitoring techniques are inefficient in predicting faults with MTS—their detection capability heavily relies on the input features, yet the classification power of MTS attributes is weakened by the complexity of multisensor data. Effective feature extraction is, therefore, necessary to facilitate fault prediction with MTS. This study proposes a fault prediction framework for MTS based on bag-of-words (BOW) feature extraction, statistical feature selection, and classification analysis. BOW models are for the first time adopted in a manufacturing context. Their superior capability in information preservation, local pattern recognition, and temporal effect accommodation has overcome the major limitations in current manufacturing practices with MTS. A comprehensive case study demonstrates the desirable performance of this framework on two MTS data sets from paper manufacturing and automotive manufacturing, as well as its superiority over conventional machine learning-based fault prediction. <italic xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">Note to Practitioners</i> —Process monitoring in a multisensor environment has been a vital interest in manufacturing. The difficulty lies in the lack of detection power in many conventional techniques, e.g., control chart and logistic regression. A critical reason for such failure is the neglect of time effect in MTS—patterns associated with system faults tend to stretch a period, but a conventional control chart or classifier inspects each time stamp separately. Fault detection based on time series sequences is, therefore, essential. However, how to effectively extract features from MTS becomes a challenge. The framework proposed in this study adopts BOW models, specifically symbolic aggregate approximation (SAX), to extract features from MTS sequences, thus substantially improves the detection power against local patterns over time. Many manufacturing multisensor data are subject to such local patterns that point to the root cause of fault, so the proposed framework has a wide application in manufacturing.

Examination of welded joint of titanium alloy used in oral surgery

The additive manufacturing of customized Ti-6Al-4V (Grade 23) implants, which in the present research concerns the dental and maxillofacial surgical field, may require complex manufacturing technology due to their complexity and assembly. In practice, additively manufactured titanium implant elements are supplemented by threaded sleeves that allow disassembly. These turned elements made from Grade 5 material quality rolled preform are joined by laser micro-welding with Grade 1 material. This special process for implant production is still not widespread in current manufacturing practice, and there is no technical recommendation for the manufacturing parameters of these implants. The aim of our research is to explore the possibilities and limitations of additive process in the manufacture of custom-made implants and to provide guidelines for optimal manufacturing and welding parameters. In the initial phase of the research, preliminary experiments were conducted with the conventional and additive manufacturing of cylindrical test specimens and with the production of combined products by micro-welding. The specimens were subjected to tensile testing, the weld was examined by CT, and the fracture surfaces were studied by optical microscope and scanning electron microscope.

Mathematical programming approach to productivity improvement in wind turbine-blade manufacturing through a case study

Wind energy has attracted remarkable attention in recent years as one of the most important renewable energy sources. However, wind energy production is still a costly process and one of the reasons is production processes which are usually not optimized. The purpose of this paper is to improve the efficiency of spar cap production process as an important phase of a wind turbine blade production in a manufacturing system. For this purpose, the present paper introduces a new optimization problem for optimal assignment of fiberglass rolls along the spar cap. In order to solve the roll allocation problem (RAP) optimally, two alternative mathematical programming models based on mixed-integer programming (MIP) and constraint programming (CP) are developed. Subsequently, two cases form a real manufacturing setting are presented and solved by using both MIP and CP models. Although proposed models are capable to solve problems optimally, it is observed that CP outperforms MIP. Solving RAP optimally reduces walking time/distance of workers considerably and provides significant improvements in comparison with current manufacturing practices. Besides, the total operation time will also decrease correlatively, and this will lead to an increase in productivity of turbine blade production in the studied system.

The Evolution and Current Manufacturing Practice Applied to the traditional Dress of Women in Ghana

Traditional dress for women in Ghana, known as “slit and kaba”, previously required no standardised sizing and fit, but as this dress has undergone an evolution and taken on more western features, the fit and manufacturing quality have become increasingly important. This paper evaluates the effect of the evolution of the slit and kaba on the current manufacturing processes adopted by the micro and small scale enterprises in Ghana. A qualitative approach was adopted to collect data in three metropolitan centres in Ghana from dressmakers of the traditional dress. An inductive approach through the grounded theory technique was utilised to analyse the data and the findings revealed that the traditional dress has undergone a considerable change in fit and form. The over reliance on trainee apprentices as workers has affected the quality of garments produced in relation to standardisation. It is also evident that most of the dressmakers rely on domestic equipment which is rudimentary in terms of technological development. This paper highlights the importance of skills and adequate equipment in the achievement of fit and quality in the area of garment manufacture in Ghana.&#x0D; Keywords: Garmentmanufacture;Qualitystandards;Fit;Traditionaldress;Evolution.

Barriers and challenges to plastics valorisation in the context of a circular economy: Case studies from Italy

In 2017, over 320 million tons of polymers, excluding fibers, were manufactured across the globe. The excessive amounts of plastics produced today pose a threat to both man and nature. Urgent approaches towards reducing plastic consumption and increasing its recyclability are needed. This paper discusses the matter of accelerating the circularity of plastic-based material systems. It investigates a sample of plastics-converting companies in Emilia Romagna region (Italy), which stand out for radical innovations in business models, with the aim to catalyse changes in current manufacturing practices. The findings provide empirical support for a positive relationship between business strategies and the use of non-virgin plastic materials. The innovative value of this paper relies on the fact that it elaborates on the vision established within the European Strategy for Plastics in a Circular Economy that sets ambitious targets about achieving high plastic recycling targets by 2025. Legislative, economic, technological and social barriers can only be tackled by radically revising the current philosophy of designing, producing, distributing and consuming plastic as part of goods and services. A systemic thinking perspective is an essential building block in this context: moving from a micro to a meso-scale analysis can represent a useful means supporting the creation of viable management approaches towards achieving environmental and economic gains, especially in European plastic conversion industry, where SMEs are the majority (about 50000). Thanks to its analysis and scope, this paper provides useful insights to the plastic industry: it shows that this substantial improvements in this sector will require innovative solutions and major efforts by key decision makers, producers, recyclers, manufacturer, retailers as well as consumers.