Cultivation Of Cash Crops Research Articles

Farmers preferences, uncertainties and opportunities in fruit-tree cultivation in Northeast Luzon

The world production of tropical fruit was estimated at about 65 Mt in 2002, of which developing countries accounted for 98%. Although most commercial fruit tree crops are cultivated by large-scale commercial enterprises, smallholder fruit-tree cultivation receives much attention in projects aimed at rural development, conservation farming and agroforestry in developing countries. In the Philippines, the integration of fruit trees in smallholder upland farming systems has been promoted since the 1970s. The aim of this paper is to investigate farmers' views on small-scale fruit-tree cultivation based on fieldwork conducted in three upland villages of Northeast Luzon. The factors influencing farmers' preferences are explored and the costs and benefits of fruit tree cultivation compared with those for seasonal cash crops over a 10-year period. Markets for fruit-tree products are identified, at both local and supra-local levels, and risks, uncertainties and opportunities associated with fruit-tree cultivation are discussed. Despite extensive promotion, the adoption of fruit trees in farming systems has occurred at a relatively low pace. In contrast, the cultivation of seasonal cash crops, particularly high-yielding rice and corn varieties, spread rapidly in the 1970s and 1980s. These crops are planted in monocultures with high inputs of fertilizers and pesticides. Farmers consider fruit trees as a subordinate crop much less profitable than seasonal cash crops, which is in stark contrast with the results of economic analyses of a 10-year production cycle. The Net Present Value (NPV) for citrus (Citrus reticulate) cultivation is at least two times the NPV for irrigated rice and as much as four times the NPV for corn, even at discount rates up to 20%. Farmers' knowledge of tree management and species selection proved to be inadequate, contributing indirectly to low growth rates and fruit production. Marketing opportunities are not fully utilised as evident from unstable network channels for fruit-tree sales, lack of expertise in fruit-tree marketing and insufficient knowledge on market demands, quality production and market location.

Socio-economic Comparison Between Traditional and Improved Cultivation Methods in Agroforestry Systems, East Usambara Mountains, Tanzania

The East Usambara Mountains, recognized as one of the 25 most important biodiversity hot spots in the world, have a high degree of species diversity and endemism that is threatened by increasing human pressure on resources. Traditional slash and burn cultivation in the area is no longer sustainable. However, it is possible to maintain land productivity, decrease land degradation, and improve rural people's livelihood by ameliorating cultivation methods. Improved agroforestry seems to be a very convincing and suitable method for buffer zones of conservation areas. Farmers could receive a reasonable net income from their farm with little investment in terms of time, capital, and labor. By increasing the diversity and production of already existing cultivations, the pressure on natural forests can be diminished. The present study shows a significant gap between traditional cultivation methods and improved agroforestry systems in socio-economic terms. Improved agroforestry systems provide approximately double income per capita in comparison to traditional methods. More intensified cash crop cultivation in the highlands of the East Usambara also results in double income compared to that in the lowlands. However, people are sensitive to risks of changing farming practices. Encouraging farmers to apply better land management and practice sustainable cultivation of cash crops in combination with multipurpose trees would be relevant in improving their economic situation in the relatively short term. The markets of most cash crops are already available. Improved agroforestry methods could ameliorate the living conditions of the local population and protect the natural reserves from human disturbance.

Farmers' cash crop cultivation decisions in Southern Niassa province, Mozambique

The aim of this study was to evaluate socially farmers' decisions about the cultivation of cash crops. It specifically assessed the feasibility of World Relief-SempreVerde scheme by investigating the agricultural promoters; the factors influencing farmers' decisions to adopt, reject, discontinue or continue with the promoted crops; and the support required for improving the food and income security of smallholder farmers. The research took place in nine villages in Cuamba district, Niassa province, Mozambique. It involved a survey of 245 farmers stratified according to gender and wealth. Focus group discussions, questionnaires and interviews with leaders, farmers and managers of promoter institutions were used. A model for introducing cash crops is proposed. This research suggests that agricultural promoters should look to cash crops that can be intercropped with existing food crops; explore dry season agricultural activity; select drought-, pest- and disease-resistant crops; provide markets for existing crops; promote perennial crops; build a well-organised extension, credit and buying system; and/or incorporate livestock in the existing farming system.

Nitrogen fertilization, soil nitrate accumulation, and policy recommendations in several agricultural regions of China.

Excessive nitrogen (N) fertilization and decreasing N recovery rates by crops have caused dramatic increases in non-point source pollution from agriculture in China. The rate of N fertilization across the country varies widely among regions and crops, depending on the stage of economic development. For example, N application rates in the eastern regions and on cash crops are far higher than in western regions of the country and on cereal crops. Moreover, N application rates in wealthier regions are higher than recommended by the Chinese Academy of Sciences. To successfully achieve environmental protection as well as high crop yields, China must formulate relevant agricultural policies to encourage farmers in economically developed areas to reduce their N fertilization rate while also issuing conventional fertilization recommendations for small-scale farming systems and the expanding cultivation of cash crops.

Changes in Slash-and-Burn Agriculture after the Introduction of Cash Crops in the Hilly Areas of Laos

Though subsistence-oriented slash-and-burn rice production is still the major land use in the hilly areas of Northern Laos, it is now increasingly problematic, especially in areas adjacent to main roads. Due principally to increased population pressure, the period of fallow has declined and labor requirements for weeding have dramatically increased. In addition, the Lao government considers shifting cultivation to be a major cause of deforestation and has recently initiated a series of policies to restrict it. The main policy now being implemented is the 'land allocation program' which aims to stabilize shifting cultivation and to promote permanent agriculture by allocating a limited area of agricultural land to each household.On the other hand, market-oriented agricultural activities of shifting cultivators, such as cash crop cultivation, collection of forest products, animal husbandry and teak plantation forestry, are now becoming increasingly important since the Lao government adopted a policy to revitalize the market from 1986. As a result, a cash income has become very important in rural and urban areas. Among these activities, cash crop cultivation is now widely adopted in some areas of Northern Laos, influencing local land use and livelihood. This is due in part to the policy of the Lao government; the government is now promoting intensive agriculture with cash crops as an alternative to slash-and-burn rice production.The present study aims to reveal the influence of the introduction of cash crop cultivation on land use in the hilly areas of Laos, with a focus on Number 10 Village, which is located 25km to the south of Luang Prabang, the largest town in Northern Laos. The main ethnic group is the Khmu. In this village, the upland fields planted with both upland rice and cash crops (Job's tears and paper mulberry) were mapped by means of GPS to describe today's land use. Interviews were also conducted with every household to investigate the household economy and land use history of each field.The conclusions are as follows.In Number 10 Village, the land allocation program was conducted in 1996 and afterwards intensive cultivation of cash crops was promoted by the local government and international organizations as an alternative to slash-and-burn rice production. Due in part to this policy, many households have started cultivating Job's tears and paper mulberry, but it has never been an alternative to slash-and-burn rice production. Job's tears is a cereal crop which is exported to Thailand and Taiwan, and is then processed into beer, sweets and health foods. Although cultivation is usually highly profitable, households cannot rely permanently on it due to large price fluctuations. Paper mulberry is a tree crop, the inner bark of which is exported mainly to Thailand and is processed into paper. It has a rather stable price and is easy to cultivate, but is rarely cultivated intensively because of its low profitability.On the other hand, upland rice cultivation is still the most important land use practice in the village, engaging 88% of households at the scale of 1.13 ha per household. Most households continue production without observing the rules established by the land allocation program. Today, they practice it under the rotation of shorter fallow and an increased cultivation period, which has caused a very significant increase in the labor requirements for weed control. If the rotation is intensified by limiting agricultural land, it cannot be continued. Therefore, many households still continue on land where cultivation is prohibited according to the rules established by the program.Most households combine subsistence-oriented rice production and market-oriented cash crop cultivation. This combination has important merit for them in that they can mitigate the risks associated with cash crop failure or a fall in the market price due to this subsistence production.

Developmental Processes, Changing Lifestyle and Traditional Wisdom: Analyses from Western Himalaya

Traditional knowledge and practices are important in prudent resource use and biodiversity conservation. The implications of modernization and changing lifestyle are discussed in the context of agriculture and resource use, the two sectors in which maximum modernization has occurred. The information was gathered through observations and structured interviews over three years (July 1996 to July 1999) of field work in the western Himalaya. It was observed that forest based subsistence agriculture has given way to the market dependant cash crop cultivation. That apart from loss of genetic diversity, has also resulted in the degradation of forests. The use of wild plants in the day-to-day activities has also declined and dependence on high value market products has increased. Currently, wild plants are used only if no other cheap substitute is available in the market or if the use is economically beneficial to the people. Thus, the knowledge gathered through ages of experience is eroding because of the activities geared for short-term economic benefits which, in long run, may not be sustainable.

Traditionelle und moderne Formen kleinbäuerlicher Waldrandbewirtschaftung in den Regenwäldern Sumatras

Abstract Traditional and modern utilization of rainforest margins by smallholders in Sumatra (Indonesia). For generations the margins of rainforests in Sumatra served as an important resource for the local farmers. However, during the last century the utilization of these areas changed fundamentally. With the spread of commercialization of agriculture shifting cultivation was more and more replaced by the cultivation of cash crops, particularly rubber and coffee. In addition to these significant economic and social changes, the process has also had remarkable ecological impacts. All in all the now practiced modern forms of land use by smallholders in the forest margins of Sumatra did not only improve the living standard of the local people but also had quite positive impacts on the natural environment.

Gender, Marital Status, Farm Size and Other Factors Influencing the Extent of Cash Cropping in Kenya: A Case Study

This article examines the effects of commercialisation of agriculture on land use and work patterns by means of a case study in the Nyeri district in Kenya. The study uses cross sectional data collected from small-scale farmers in this district. We find that good quality land is allocated to non-food cash crops, which may lead to a reduction in non-cash food crops and expose some households to greater risks of possible famine. Also the proportion of land allocated to food crops declines as the farm size increases while the proportion of land allocated to non-food cash crops rises as the size of farm increases. Cash crops are also not bringing in as much revenue commensurate with the amount of land allocated to them. With growing commercialisation, women still work more hours than men. They not only work on non-cash food crops but also on cash crops including non-food cash crops. Evidence indicates that women living with husbands work longer hours than those married but living alone, and also longer than the unmarried women. Married women seem to lose their decision-making ability with growth of commercialisation, as husbands make most decisions to do with cash crops. Furthermore husbands appropriate family cash income. Husbands are less likely to use such income for the welfare of the family compared to wives due to different expenditure patterns. Married women in Kenya also have little or no power to change the way land is allocated between food and non-food cash crops. Due to deteriorating terms of trade for non-food cash crops, men have started cultivation of food cash crops with the potential of crowding out women. It is found that both the area of non-cash crops tends to rise with farm size but also the proportion of the farm area cash cropped rises in Central Kenya.

Pesticide exposures among Hmong farmers in Thailand.

Highland Hmong farmers in Thailand have abandoned shifting cultivation of subsistence crops and turned to chemical-intensive cultivation of non-narcotic permanent field cash crops. Three highland communities and Hmong in urban Chiang Mai were studied. Most rural study participants applied chemicals, primarily to control insects, weeds, and fungus, by backpack and machine sprays and by hand. Hmong women have less Thai language skill than men and less information concerning hazards of exposure or use of protective clothing. Most Hmong know of the health hazards, but many fail to use adequate protective clothing to prevent exposure. Screening showed 20-69% of 582 Hmong adults with risky or unsafe levels of cholinesterase inhibition, an indicator of exposure to organophosphate and carbamate pesticides. Exposure rates are as high among those who do not actually apply pesticides as among those who do, suggesting exposure by routes in addition to direct contact associated with application.

Democracy and Slavery in Frontier Illinois: the Bottomland Republic

Democracy and Slavery in Frontier Illinois: The Bottomland Republic. By James Simeone. (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 2000. Pp. x, 289. $38.00.) In the years following their state's admission into the Union in 1818, the citizens of Illinois debated revising their constitution to permit a limited system of slavery with provisions for gradual abolition. Supporters of a convention argued that a new constitution was necessary both as a boon to the state's economy and as a symbol of majority rule in Illinois. Opponents, content with the voluntary indentures that kept most of the state's African Americans in quasi-bondage, rejected a constitutional convention as unnecessary tampering that would open Illinois to a stigmatized institution. The conventionists lost by fewer than 2,000 votes in 1824, but their struggle helped transform Illinois politics forever. The convention battle is a thread that runs through this book, but James Simeone's primary interest is the rise of majoritarian democracy and identity politics in Illinois. That leads him to the broader context of a shifting and economic landscape in the late 1810s. The deferential culture of the territorial period benefited elite statesmen such as Ninian Edwards, who used the power generated through federal connections to build a patronage network. Edwards floundered, however, in the increasingly democratic and contentious arena after statehood, while other politicians, like Edward Coles and Jesse B. Thomas, had better success at building coalitions and mobilizing voters. The convention was one issue used by politicians to generate popular support. Conventionists played the majoritarian card, arguing that the 1818 constitution was a vestige of the territorial period and congressional power and needed to be replaced by a constitution that reflected the values of the majority of the people. While politicians were struggling over the implications of statehood, the Panic of 1819 and the subsequent depression halted the state's drive toward market agriculture and influenced the convention debate. Advocates of a new constitution argued that opening Illinois to slaveholders would attract a wave of new settlers and an infusion of capital, while their slaves would labor to clear the fertile, but often disease-ridden, bottomlands for cultivation of cash crops. As the title of his book suggests, Simeone argues that there was a close relationship between the limited slavery expected in a new constitution and promises of and economic democracy. He goes further to argue that the convention struggle transformed the very identity of Illinois citizens, allowing ordinary to define themselves in opposition to both the African Americans beneath them and the elitist who opposed democratization and the new constitution. But the unity of class and racial interests could not be sustained. Once the people became the white and political equality and formal social equality with the big folks was attained, there was no longer a tangible class image against which champions of democracy could register the social striving of their followers (168-69). The ordinary people of Illinois fractured along cultural lines that reflected larger divisions within American society. Southern settlers remained suspicious of those from the North, especially in regards to the issue of slavery, while whole-hog Calvinists, primarily anti-mission Baptists, challenged the culture and theology of milk-and-- cider Arminians (chap. …

Subsistence agriculture and child growth in Papua New Guinea

Spatial statistical analyses of child anthropometric data were undertaken to assess the influence of systems of subsistence agriculture, in terms of staple foods and cash crops cultivated, on patterns of child growth in Papua New Guinea. These agricultural data explained between a quarter and half of the geographical variation in anthropometric growth indicators. Accounting for differences in altitude, relief and rainfall patterns, though explaining additional geographical variation, did not improve the predictions. Child growth was better in agriculture systems with cassava and sweet potato as staple crops, but worse in systems where banana, sago and taro were staple crops. Both the cultivation of all major cash crops, and sales of fish and food crops improved child growth. More intensive agricultural systems were associated with larger children indicating that the nutritional status of children benefited from intensification as well as from the introduction of cash crops into traditional subsistence systems.

Forest patches in Imperata grassland and prospects for their preservation under agricultural intensification in Northeast Luzon, The Philippines

Frequent burning and grazing and cultivation of cash crops increasingly threaten forest patches in hilly grassland in Northeast Luzon, yet their importance as a resource with multiple environmental functions and forest products persists. The aim of this study is to identify different types of forest patches, and their condition under present land-use intensification, and discuss prospects for their integration into sustainable local farming systems. Five types of forest patches are distinguished, both natural and planted ones, including rows of trees, woody patches, gallery forests, hill-slope forests and homegarden conglomerations. Natural woody patches and gallery forests in Imperata grassland are subject to degradation and land-use conversion under conditions of agricultural intensification. Woody patches in grassland affected by frequent burning and grazing cover small areas (66% below 50 m2 as opposed to 28% in protected grassland) and contain relatively few woody plant species (25 woody species in total as opposed to 82 where protected). Yet where well managed, they may provide a variety of products for sale and subsistence, covering emergency needs and giving off-season cash income to rural communities. Moreover they serve like the gallery forest various ecological functions, carrying valuable indigenous tree species, retaining soil base nutrients, providing a continuous supply of organic matter and intercepting fine earth soil particles removed from bare surfaces. It is suggested that forest-patch management systems may be developed, taking into account both patch diversity and the diverse needs of rural communities, and to strengthen existing and undervalued functions of forest patches as permanent elements in an agricultural landscape.

Water scarcity in Kitulwatte: The social causes and consequences of environmental degradation in a highland Uva village of Sri Lanka

A multi-causal and interdisciplinary analysis of land use changes in Kitulwatte, a tropical Sri Lankan highland village, is provided. Based on ethnographic research, sociological, hydrological and agro-ecological aspects of pine plantations, vegetable cash crop cultivation and human settlement expansion are investigated. Resource competition and land degradation have caused water scarcity, which adversely affects crop cultivation, household production and human health. To cope, villagers mobilize resources through the political system and development agencies. The resolution of Kitulwatte's water crisis remains constrained by unequal power relations between villagers and foresters, population growth and the requirements of a competitive cash economy.

The conservation status of birds on the Cordillera de Colán, Peru

SummaryIn July and August 1994, we surveyed two areas in the south of the Cordillera de Colán, Amazonas department, Peru, above the north bank of the río Utcubamba. We found a high rate of deforestation, with trees being felled for timber, forest being cleared for the cultivation of cash crops, and elfin forest being burned for pasture. Most of the forest on the mountain range may have been cleared in 10 years. We recorded a number of important bird species, highlighting the significance of the area for the conservation of biodiversity; globally threatened birds included Peruvian Pigeon Columba oenops, Military Macaw Ara militaris and Royal Sunangel Heliangelus regalis. Elfin forest is under particular threat in the area, but probably still holds species such as Long-whiskered Owlet Xenoglaux loweryi. We recommend that a protected area containing areas of cloud-forest and elfin forest be established on the Cordillera de Colán.

Land Use and Crop Diversity in Two Iban Communities, Sarawak, Malaysia

Geografisk Tidsskrift, Danish Journal of Geography 97: 98–110, 1997. The difference in agricultural strategies of two Iban communities located in the hilly interior and the coastal zone of Sarawak, respectively, is studied through interviews, field measurements, and botanical collections. The diversity of crops and farming environments is very similar in both communities, the main difference being the production of wet rice with high yields in the coastal area. Here, self-sufficiency has been achieved, and with rice as the most important cash crop, intensification of farming practices is not an immediate priority. In the hilly area, rice production is very low and although yield increases may be possible with appropriate farming techniques, self-sufficiency is unrealistic at present. The subsidised cultivation of cash crops supplements the rice production, but failure of cocoa and unstable prices of pepper and rubber illustrate the need for careful monitoring of cash crop schemes. In addition, alternative indigenous cash and subsistence crops represent a largely unexplored potential which may prove essential for the development of remote communities in Sarawak.

Human and ecosystem health: the environment-agriculture connection in developing countries.

It is posited that farming methods and activities are both affected by and have an impact on local and global environmental ecosystems. This article discusses regional and global trends that affect the environment and the health and survival of rural agricultural populations. Political, social, and environmental factors that "underlie and generate" medical issues are identified for developing countries with large rural populations dependent upon the land for survival. Although food production appears to have kept pace with population growth in macro statistics, 35% of the population in sub-Saharan Africa, 22% of the Asian population, and 22% of developing market economies were estimated to be malnourished in the mid-1980s. The Green Revolution involved the widespread use of chemicals in agriculture that had adverse environmental impacts. The interrelationships between water resources, erosion, pesticides and fertilizers, deforestation, population pressure, and biodiversity, and farmers are individually addressed. It is argued that a new perspective may be necessary in order to preserve agriculture and other ecosystems and human health. A universal formula for environmentally sensitive and productive agriculture is not possible. However, it is likely that some approaches may involve traditional practices, such as crop rotation and natural pest management, combined with the tools of the Green Revolution (pesticides, fertilizers, and intensive irrigation). An increasing number of people are aware that creative and locally rational farming methods are the best option, and that the costs of chemical-intensive farming in developing countries are too high. National policies that promote cultivation of non-food cash crops and favor the land-wealthy elite have serious consequences for the small farmer and national food availability. The World Bank has the greatest potential to guide agricultural reforms that promote protective practices engendered in local controls over resources. The aim is to provide an appropriate mix of programs and policies that support sustainable and profitable agriculture and the production of small farmers.

Parks, resettlement, and population: A case study in the Dominican republic

A survey of 139 men and 123 women in four communities bordering Los Haitises National Park in the Dominican Republic was undertaken in late 1992. The survey followed a presidential decree ordering the army to clear the forest of people and cattle, and to resettle a number of villages. Some of the findings were as follows. Use of the forest for firewood and cash crop cultivation was admitted by most of the population, but there was also an awareness of the need to conserve the forest and an expressed willingness to compromise on its use. However, awareness of park boundaries and an appreciation of the concept of a national park were less evident. Villagers welcome rapid population growth and women favor (and have) large families despite high rates of sterilization. Nearly everyone is opposed to resettlement and favors community participation in programs to alleviate pressures on the park. In addition to providing housing and services, a resettlement program will have to find adequate substitutes for curren...

Farmer adoption of contour hedgerow intercropping, a case study from east Indonesia

The results of a study to assess the initial impact of the introduction of contour hedgerow intercropping on the Indonesian islands of Lombok and Sumbawa are described. The study focused on the reasons for adopting this technique and its initial effect. The results of detailed case studies in four villages indicated that the process of adoption is heterogeneous. Land-use conditions in the four villages were much more diverse and dynamic than the project anticipated. Rather than being an ‘off the shelf’ technique as assumed by the project, hedgerow cropping proved to be a ‘prototype’ technique; the farmers' ability to adapt the practice to their specific farming conditions such as subsistence food production or cash crop cultivation was an important motive for its adoption. In some cases the introduction competed with the extension of other promising land-use practices. Several farmers adopted the technique not because of its productive benefits, but as a means to gain access to land or credit, or to demonstrate their allegiance to social networks. The results indicate that there were significant discontinuities between what the project intended to achieve by introducing the technique and the farmers' motives for adopting it.

Land-Use Change and the Structural Dynamics of Pinus kesiya in a Hill Evergreen Forest in Northern Thailand

This study describes changes occurring in a stand of Pinus kesiya in hill evergreen forest adjacent to a new settlement of tribal people in the Doi Inthanon mountain region of northern Thailand. These forests are increasingly experiencing chronic human impacts as tribal people are settled permanently at one site by government programs which encourage the cultivation of cash crops in place of opium. Results from age stand structure analysis suggest that two factors, human-set fires and kindling stick harvesting, are now severely affecting the age distribution of Pinus kesiya in the mixed pine and evergreen hardwood forest.

Hill agroforestry systems in south Sikkim, India

In the Mamlay watershed of south Sikkim, India, about 80% of the population depend on land for their livelihood. The agricultural land-use activity includes agroforestry, horticulture and animal husbandry besides growing crops in irrigated or unirrigated fields. Trees are maintained in the farms mainly for fodder and rarely for fuel purposes. Cropping system is characterised by cultivation of cereals and cash crops to ensure supply of food grains and returns for daily needs. This paper presents data on crop production and farm management aspects including the linkages among tree-crop-animal components of a hill agriculture system. Crop diversity is high and crop combinations are fixed and well tested. Unpalatable grasses are used for composting by mixing with cow dung to meet high demand for manure and thus exhibit efficient recycling of plant material. The system is at low input level, and is therefore adopted by even the poorest section of society. Limited infrastructure facilities, sloping terrain, inaccessibility to most agricultural zone, depletion of natural resources from forests, water scarcity during lean period and heavy rainfall during monsoon, and erosion are, the main constraints which need to be improved through research using scientific means.