Cu-catalyzed Azide-alkyne Cycloaddition Research Articles

"Click" Chemistry: Application of Copper Metal in Cu-Catalyzed Azomethine Imine-Alkyne Cycloadditions.

A series of 16 copper-catalyzed azomethine imine-alkyne cycloaddition (CuAIAC) reactions between four pyrazolidinone-1-azomethine imines and four terminal ynones gave the corresponding fluorescent cycloadducts as bimane analogues in very high yields. The applicability of CuAIAC was demonstrated by the fluorescent labeling of functionalized polystyrene and by using Cu-C and Cu-Fe as catalysts. Experimental evidence, kinetic measurements, and correlation between a clean catalyst surface and the reaction rate are in agreement with a homotopic catalytic system with catalytic Cu(I)-acetylide formed from Cu(0) by "in situ" oxidation. The availability of azomethine imines, mild reaction conditions, simple workup, and scalability make CuAIAC a viable supplement to the Cu-catalyzed azide-alkyne cycloaddition reaction in "click" chemistry.

Cu0and Pd0loaded Organo-Bentonites as Sponge-like Matrices for Hydrogen Reversible Capture at Ambient Conditions

Sponge-like gluco- and thioglycerol-organo-bentonite hosting Cu0 and Pd0 subnanoparticles with high affinity towards hydrogen were synthesized through an unprecedented procedure involving a chemical grafting of (3-azidopropyl)triethoxysilane, followed by Cu-catalyzed azide-alkyne cycloaddition with propargyl glucoside or triallyl propargyl pentaerythritol. Further, thioglycerol groups were attached to the alkene groups by photolysis (TEC reaction). This resulted in a structure swelling, but further Cu0 or Pd0 nanoparticle incorporation produced a compaction due to strong O:metal and S:metal interactions that improve metal stabilization and prevent re-aggregation. Such a structure favored hydrogen capture via physical condensation with easy release at nearly ambient temperature at the expense of hydrogen dissolution in the metal bulk. This innovative concept opens new prospects for obtaining low cost clay-based matrices for a truly reversible capture of hydrogen.

Bi- and trinuclear copper(I) complexes of 1,2,3-triazole-tethered NHC ligands: synthesis, structure, and catalytic properties.

A series of copper complexes (3–6) stabilized by 1,2,3-triazole-tethered N-heterocyclic carbene ligands have been prepared via simple reaction of imidazolium salts with copper powder in good yields. The structures of bi- and trinuclear copper complexes were fully characterized by NMR, elemental analysis (EA), and X-ray crystallography. In particular, [Cu2(L2)2](PF6)2 (3) and [Cu2(L3)2](PF6)2 (4) were dinuclear copper complexes. Complexes [Cu3(L4)2](PF6)3 (5) and [Cu3(L5)2](PF6)3 (6) consist of a triangular Cu3 core. These structures vary depending on the imidazolium backbone and N substituents. The copper–NHC complexes tested are highly active for the Cu-catalyzed azide–alkyne cycloaddition (CuAAC) reaction in an air atmosphere at room temperature in a CH3CN solution. Complex 4 is the most efficient catalyst among these polynuclear complexes in an air atmosphere at room temperature.

Clickable and Antifouling Platform of Poly[(propargyl methacrylate)-ran-(2-methacryloyloxyethyl phosphorylcholine)] for Biosensing Applications

A functional copolymer platform, namely, poly[(propargyl methacrylate)-ran-(2-methacryloyloxyethyl phosphorylcholine)] (PPgMAMPC), was synthesized by reversible addition-fragmentation chain-transfer polymerization. In principle, the alkyne moiety of propargyl methacrylate (PgMA) should serve as an active site for binding azide-containing molecules via a click reaction, i.e., Cu-catalyzed azide/alkyne cycloaddition (CuAAC), and 2-methacryloyloxyethyl phosphorylcholine (MPC), the hydrophilic monomeric unit, should enable the copolymer to suppress nonspecific adsorption. The copolymers were characterized using Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) and (1)H NMR spectroscopies. Thiol-terminated, PPgMAMPC-SH, obtained by aminolysis of PPgMAMPC, was immobilized on a gold-coated substrate using a "grafting to" approach via self-assembly. Azide-containing species, namely, biotin and peptide nucleic acid (PNA), were then immobilized on the alkyne-containing copolymeric platform via CuAAC. The potential use of surface-attached PPgMAMPC in biosensing applications was shown by detection of specific target molecules, i.e., streptavidin (SA) and DNA, by the developed sensing platform using a surface plasmon resonance technique. The copolymer composition strongly influenced the performance of the developed sensing platform in terms of signal-to-noise ratio in the case of the biotin-SA system and hybridization efficiency and mismatch discrimination for the PNA-DNA system.

An Efficient and Tunable Route to Bis(1,2,3‐triazol‐1‐yl)methane‐Based Nitrogen Compounds

AbstractA new and easy route to prepare “a la carte” bis(1,2,3‐triazol‐1‐yl)methane compounds, namely bmtzm (1), bptzm (2), bttzm (3), bmtzpm (4), bptzpm (5), bttzpm (6), bmtzom (7), bptzom (8) and bttzom (9), with different functional groups is reported. The compounds were prepared by reaction between readily accessible alkynes and geminal diazides in a double Cu‐catalyzed azide‐alkyne cycloaddition (CuAAC) reaction. These materials were used as starting materials for the synthesis of more elaborate compounds. Thus, the preparation of new bis(1,2,3‐triazol‐1‐yl)methane‐based heteroscorpionate neutral precursors pbptztamH (10), pbttztamH (11), (S)‐mbptzamH (12) and (S)‐mbttzamH (13) and a dinuclear zinc complex, [Zn{pbptztam}Et]2 (14), was achieved. The structures of the compounds were determined by spectroscopic methods, and the X‐ray crystal structures of compounds 2, 3, 7, 8, 9 and 14 were established.

Interfacial diffusion of a single cyclic polymer chain.

Lateral diffusion of cyclic polystyrene at the interface between fused silica and dichloromethane is investigated at the single-molecular level. Narrowly distributed cyclic polystyrene (c-PS) of high purity with molecular weights spanning nearly an order of magnitude is prepared via atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) and Cu-catalyzed azide/alkyne cycloaddition (CuAAC) click reaction. The diffusion coefficients (D) of c-PS and its linear analogue (l-PS) on the surface are measured by fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS). The diffusion coefficient of c-PS is discovered to have an inverse dependence on molecular weight, D ∼ M-1, in contrast to the case of linear polystyrene, which reproduces a stronger molecular weight dependence, D ∼ M-3/2. The slower interfacial motion of cyclic chains is attributed to their stronger binding to the surface and more importantly, the unique surface diffusion mechanism due to the absence of free chain ends.

Synthesis of hyperbranched polymers and hyperbranched block copolymers through “A2 + B3” click reaction

Long-chain hyperbranched and hyperbranched block polymers were synthesized through Cu catalyzed azide-alkyne cycloaddition (CuAAC) of A2 macromonomers with two alkyne groups and B3 coupling reagent with three azide groups. Polystyrene (PSt) homopolymers and block copolymers of styrene and butyl acrylate (P(St-b-BA-b-St)) with two alkyne groups were obtained via reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) polymerization using a RAFT agent with two alkyne groups, S, S′-bis(α, α′-dimethyl – α″-propargyl acetate) trithio carbonate (BPTTC). Besides, the hyperbranched block copolymers were also prepared through the successive RAFT polymerization of BA with the hyperbranched PSt as RAFT agents. The evidence of 1H NMR, IR and GPC-Viscosity-MALLS measurements conformed the structure of the polymers. Dpws, the ratio of the weight average molecular weights of the hyperbranched polymers to those of the macromonomers, reached above 60 at most, calculated from MALLS measurement, which showed a high degree of the coupling reaction. The degree of branched of the hyperbranched polymers kept on increasing with the reaction time, according to the branching factor, g′.

Synthesis of monomeric methylene-linked 1,2,3-triazole glycoconjugates from allo- and glucofuranoses

Open image in new window Carbohydrate–triazole conjugates proved themselves as valuable enzyme activity-modifying agents. Recent exploration of nontrivial conjugates in which the bonding is formed not at the glycosidic or terminal carbons of the carbohydrates, but at C-3 position showed a potential of this type of structures as the ligands for various glycosidases and galectins. Here, we report synthesis of protected monomeric 3-C-(triazolylmethyl)-substituted gluco- and alloconjugates. Diastereomeric azides are synthesized from common intermediate, 3-deoxy-1,2:5,6-di-O-isopropylidene-3-oxo-α-D-allofuranose, and used in Cu-catalyzed azide–alkyne cycloaddition (CuAAC) reactions with commercial alkynes. The yields of the cycloaddition reactions are good to excellent under different catalytic conditions.

A sensitive fluorescent sensor for quantification of alpha-fetoprotein based on immunosorbent assay and click chemistry.

A novel fluoresencent immunosensor for determination of cancer biomarkers such as alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) was designed by utilizing both the high specificity of antigen-antibody sandwich structure and the high sensitivity of the click chemistry based fluorescence detection. Instead of an enzyme or fluorophore, the CuO nanoparticles are labeled on the detection antibody, which was not susceptible to the change of the external environments. The CuO nanoparticles which were modified on the sandwich structure can be dissolved to produce Cu(2+) ions with the help of HCl and then the Cu(2+) ions were reduced by sodium ascorbate to produce Cu(+) ions which triggered the Cu(+) catalyzed alkyne-azide cycloaddition (CuAAC) reaction between the weak fluorescent compound (3-azido-7-hydroxycoumarin) and propargyl alcohol to form a strong fluorescent compound. A good linear relationship was observed between the fluorescence increase factor of the system and the concentration of AFP in the range of 0.025-5.0 ng/mL with a detection limit of 12 pg/mL (S/N=3). The proposed fluorescent sensor had been applied to detect AFP in the human serum samples and gave satisfactory results.

Click functionalization of phenyl-capped bithiophene on azide-terminated self-assembled monolayers

We immobilized tetra(ethylene glycol)-substituted phenyl-capped bithiophene with alkyne terminals (Ph2TPh-alkyne) on azide-terminated self-assembled monolayers (N3-SAMs) by Cu-catalyzed azide-alkyne cycloaddition reaction. Ph2TPh-functionalized SAMs on a gold substrate showed reversible electrochemical response. The surface densities of the azide groups in N3-SAMs and Ph2TPh units in Ph2TPh-functionalized SAMs were estimated to be 7.3±0.3×10−10molcm−2 and 4.6±0.3×10−10molcm−2, respectively, by quartz crystal microbalance (QCM). Most of Ph2TPh-alkynes are considered to be anchored on N3-SAMs via both terminal groups. Ph2TPh-functionalized SAMs exhibited reversible redox peaks in cyclic voltammetry (CV). In redox reaction, reversible capture and release of the counter anion could be monitored by electrochemical QCM (E-QCM).

Synthesis of graft copolymer with pendant macrocycles via combination of ATRP and click chemistry

Graft copolymers with pendant macrocycles were synthesized via “graft onto” method. First, cyclic polystyrene (PS) was achieved by the combination of atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) and Cu-catalyzed azide–alkyne cycloaddition (CuAAc), and then an alkynyl group was introduced to cyclic PS. Meanwhile, poly(3-azide-2-hydroxypropyl methacrylate) (PGMA-N3) was synthesized by ATRP of glycidyl methacrylate (GMA) and successive ring-opening of pendant epoxide ring with NaN3. The graft copolymer was achieved by the following click reaction between PGMA-N3 and alkynyl-containing cyclic PS. GPC and 1H NMR were utilized to characterize the obtained graft copolymers, and a maximal grafting density of 20% was observed. Thermal behaviors of linear PS, cyclic PS and PGMA grafted with cyclic PS (PGMA-g-cPS) were investigated by differential scanning calorimeter (DSC), and Tg of PGMA-g-cPS is higher than those of linear and cyclic PS.

Phase-vanishing method with acetylene evolution and its utilization in several organic syntheses.

A novel quadraphasic phase-vanishing system in which acetylene is evolved from calcium carbide and directly applied in situ to the Sonogashira coupling reaction was developed. This method, which provides a safe, convenient, and one-pot means to utilize gaseous reagents without special equipment, was also applied to a Cu-catalyzed azide-alkyne cycloaddition (CuAAC) reaction and a three-component aldehyde-alkyne-amine (A(3)) coupling reaction with excellent results.

Site-Specific Glycoconjugation of Protein via Bioorthogonal Tetrazine Cycloaddition with a Genetically Encoded trans-Cyclooctene or Bicyclononyne.

Efficient access to proteins modified site-specifically with glycans is important in glycobiology and for therapeutic applications. Herein, we report a biocompatible protein glycoconjugation by inverse demand Diels-Alder reaction between tetrazine and trans-cyclooctene. Tetrazine functionalized glycans were obtained in one step by CuAAC (Cu-catalyzed alkyne azide cycloaddition) between glycosyl azide and an alkyne-tetrazine adduct. Site-specific glycoconjugation was performed chemoselectively on a target protein in which a trans-cyclooctene derivatized lysine was genetically encoded. Glycoconjugation proceeded to completion on purified protein and was shown to be selective for the target protein in E. coli.

Configurable Nanosized Metal Oxide Oligomers via Precise "Click" Coupling Control of Hybrid Polyoxometalates.

Polyoxometalates (POMs) are discrete clusters of redox-active metal oxides, many of which can be linked to organic moieties. Here, we show how it is possible to link Mn Anderson POMs to terminal alkyne and azide groups and develop appropriate conditions for their Cu-catalyzed alkyne-azide cycloaddition (or "click" reaction). These coupling reactions are then used to link the clusters together, forming monodisperse linear Mn Anderson oligomers, here with examples ranging in size from two to five clusters. These oligomers are built up sequentially using a combination of mono- and difunctionalized clusters, giving an unprecedented level of control over the size and structure of the resulting hybrid POMs. This new synthetic methodology therefore opens the way for the synthesis of metal oxide hybrid oligomers and polymers by coupling control, minimizing side products, producing nanosized molecular hybrid organic-inorganic oxides ca. 4-9 nm in size, with molecular weights ranging 2-10 kDa.

Gold–copper alloyed nanorods for metal-catalyzed organic reactions: implication of surface ligands on nanoparticle-based heterogeneous catalysis

Recent advances in nanoparticle synthesis have created new potential avenues for aqueous catalysis of organic reactions. Morphological control of metal nanoparticles often involves the use of surface ligands, which in turn affect the catalytic activity of nanocatalysts. This Letter demonstrates that surface anchoring group, chain length, and configuration of the water-soluble, polymeric ligands influence the catalytic properties of alloyed AuCu3 nanorods for metal-catalyzed organic reactions. Due to the binding affinity of the surface-anchoring groups, a thiol anchor was found to be detrimental the Au-catalyzed reduction of p-nitrophenol while the Cu-catalyzed azide–alkyne cycloaddition was severely inhibited by amine anchors. Furthermore, the catalytic activity of nanorods increased with increased dimension of the ligands with the same anchoring group due to the reduction of graft density. Elevated temperature facilitates the mobility of surface ligands in benzonitrile hydration to benzamide, resulting in the enhancement of catalytic activity. This work highlights the paramount importance of surface ligand selection in the design of nanocatalysts for catalytic organic reactions.

Incorporation of Methionine Analogues Into Bombyx mori Silk Fibroin for Click Modifications.

Bombyx mori silk fibroin incorporating three methionine (Met) analogues-homopropargylglycine (Hpg), azidohomoalanine (Aha), and homoallylglycine (Hag)-can be produced simply by adding them to the diet of B. mori larvae. The Met analogues are recognized by methionyl-tRNA synthetase, bound to tRNA(Met), and used for the translation of adenine-uracil-guanine (AUG) codons competitively with Met. In the presence of the standard amount of Met in the diet, incorporation of these analogues remains low. Lowering the amount of Met in the diet drastically improves incorporation efficiencies. Alkyne and azide groups in Hpg and Aha incorporated into silk fibroin can be selectively modified with Cu-catalyzed azide-alkyne cycloaddition reactions (click chemistry). Since Met residues exist only at the N-terminal domain of the fibroin heavy chain and in the fibroin light chain, good access to the reactive sites is expected and domain-selective modifications are possible without perturbing other major domains, including repetitive domains.

ChemInform Abstract: A Review on 1,3‐Dipolar Cycloaddition Reactions in Bioconjugation and It′s Importance in Pharmaceutical Chemistry

AbstractReview: 11 refs.

Synthesis, emulsification and self-assembly properties of sugar-containing semifluorinated amphiphiles

Surfactants with two and three monosaccharide-based heads and a perfluoroalkyl tail have been synthesized. Perfluoroalkyl C3-symmetric triol and C2-symmetric diol were conveniently prepared via Cu-catalyzed azide–alkyne cycloaddition between a fluorous alkyne and tertiary and secondary azides, respectively. Glycosylation of the perfluoroalkyl diol and triol led to orthoester-type structures, which were evaluated for their capacity to stabilize aqueous emulsions of highly fluorinated anesthetics. The self-assembly properties of the tri-sugar amphiphile were examined by transmission electron microscopy.

Consecutive three-component synthesis of (hetero)arylated propargyl amides by chemoenzymatic aminolysis-Sonogashira coupling sequence.

A novel chemoenzymatic three-component synthesis of (hetero)arylated propargyl amides in good yields based upon Novozyme® 435 (Candida antarctica lipase B (CAL-B)) catalyzed aminolysis of methyl carboxylates followed by Sonogashira coupling with (hetero)aryliodides in a consecutive one-pot fashion has been presented. This efficient methodology can be readily concatenated with a CuAAC (Cu catalyzed alkyne azide cycloaddition) as a third consecutive step to furnish 1,4-disubstituted 1,2,3-triazole ligated arylated propargyl amides. This one-pot process can be regarded as a transition metal catalyzed sequence that takes advantage of the copper source still present from the cross-coupling step.

Covalent attachment of diphosphine ligands to glassy carbon electrodes via Cu-catalyzed alkyne-azide cycloaddition. Metallation with Ni(II).

Covalent tethering of P(Ph)2N(C6H4C≡CH)2 ligands (P(Ph)2N(C6H4C≡CH)2 = 1,5-di-(4-ethynylphenyl)-3,7-diphenyl-1,5-diaza-3,7-diphosphacyclooctane) to planar, azide-terminated glassy carbon electrode surfaces has been accomplished using a Cu(I)-catalyzed alkyne-azide cycloaddition (CuAAC) coupling reaction, using a BH3←P protection-deprotection strategy. Deprotected, surface-confined ligands were metallated using [Ni(II)(MeCN)6](BF4)2. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopic measurements demonstrate that metallation introduced 1.3 equivalents Ni(II) per diphosphine onto the electrode surface. Exposure of the surface to a second diphosphine ligand, P(Ph)2N(Ph)2, resulted in the removal of Ni from the surface. Protection, coupling, deprotection, and metallation conditions were optimized using solution-phase model systems, with benzyl azide as a model for the azide-terminated carbon surface; these reactions generate a [Ni(II)(diphosphine)2](2+) complex.