Crustal Conditions Research Articles

Ultrasonic velocity of the upper gneiss series rocks from the Outokumpu deep drill hole, Fennoscandian shield — Comparing uniaxial to triaxial loading

Abstract P- and S-wave propagation velocities in dry mica schist samples obtained from the Outokumpu deep drill hole in Eastern Finland were measured under uniaxial compression in a custom built measurement device. At 300 MPa pressure the obtained velocities (5520 ± 130) m/s and (3270 ± 60) m/s, for P- and S-waves, respectively, agreed with those measured under triaxial compression, (5530 ± 200) m/s and (3300 ± 90) m/s. The increase in Vp with uniaxial pressure was steeper, whereas this was not the case with Vs. These results indicate that ultrasound velocity measurements can be performed under uniaxial compression without the need to alter the cylindrical geometry of a borehole sample. Results obtained with the device can improve the interpretation of seismic crustal structure maps by providing seismic velocity data of the Outokumpu drill core as well as seismic impedances and reflection coefficients measured under crustal conditions.

Preferential eruption of andesitic magmas through recharge filtering

At subduction zones, andesite lavas erupt in greater abundance than the individual magmas that mix to produce them. Textural and geochemical analyses of andesites from Mount Hood, Oregon, reveal that injection and mixing of iron- and magnesium-rich magma in the magma chamber can initiate the volcanic eruption. Andesitic volcanic rocks are common in subduction zones and are argued to play an important role in the formation and evolution of the continental crust at convergent margins1,2,3,4. Andesite formation is dominated by mixing between iron- and magnesium-rich (mafic) magmas and silica-rich (felsic) magmas1,2,4. The abundance of andesites in many subduction zones suggests they erupt in preference to the magmas that mix to produce them4; however, the reasons for this remain unclear. Here we use textural and geochemical analyses of andesites from Mount Hood, Oregon, to show that eruptions are closely linked with episodes of mafic recharge—the intrusion of mafic magma into a shallow felsic magma reservoir. The felsic and mafic magmas involved rarely erupt by themselves, probably because the former are too viscous and the latter too dense. Mafic recharge overcomes these barriers to eruption, and, as it also promotes efficient mixing, results in preferential eruption of mixed andesitic magmas. The abundance of andesites therefore relates to local crustal conditions and the ability of magmas to erupt. We suggest that volcanoes, such as Mount Hood, that erupt homogeneous andesitic compositions through time are those that are the most reliant on mafic recharge to initiate eruptions.

The initiation of strain localisation in plagioclase-rich rocks: Insights from detailed microstructural analyses

In order to shed light on the cause for onset of strain localisation in plagioclase-rich rocks we have performed detailed microstructural analyses on a sheared anorthosite–leucogabbro using optical microscopy, electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) and chemical analyses. The analysed sample is from an Archaean unit, SW Greenland, deformed at lower to mid crustal conditions ( T = 675–700 °C and moderate pressure). The initial deformation occurred dominantly by dislocation creep and the grain size was reduced primarily by subgrain rotation recrystallisation. Recrystallised plagioclase grains (average size 80 μm) are dominantly found in (i) clusters, (ii) lenses and (iii) continuous bands subparallel to shear zone boundaries. Recrystallised grains in clusters and lenses display inherited crystallographic orientations. Their bulk crystallographic preferred orientation (CPO) is random; however, crystallographic characteristics show that parent and daughter grains have the same misorientation axes and possibly the same active slip systems. Recrystallised grains in continuous bands show a CPO with a single dominant active slip system, (001)<110>, aligned with the structural (XYZ) framework. For these parent and daughter grains, misorientation axes are random and the dominant slip system is different. Grain rotations of recrystallised grains are traceable back to the orientation of the adjacent porphyroclast. We infer that the cause for strain localisation is recrystallisation and development of a CPO in continuous recrystallised bands. Microstructures in combination with misorientation and slip system analyses indicate a possible change from dislocation creep in clusters and lenses to dislocation-accommodated grain boundary sliding (DisGBS) in continuous bands. This inferred shift in dominant deformation mechanism would lower the strength of the shear zone.

Metamorphic evolution of the Karimnagar granulite terrane, Eastern Dharwar Craton, south India

AbstractThe Karimnagar granulite terrane is an integral part of the Eastern Dharwar Craton (EDC), India, having been the subject of much interest because of the only reported granulite facies rocks in the EDC. It shows a large variety of rock types with a wide range of mineral parageneses and chemical compositions, namely charnockites (Opx+Pl+perthite+Qtz±Bt±Grt), gneisses (Opx+Crd+Bt+Pl+Qtz+perthite±Sil±Grt±Spl; Bt+Qtz+Pl±Crd±Hbl±Spl), mafic granulites (Cpx+Pl+Qtz±Opx±Hbl), quartz-free granulites (Spr+Spl+Bt+Crd+Kfs+Crn; Bt+Crd+Kfs±Crn±Spl±Krn; And+Bt+Kfs+Chl), granites (Qtz+Pl+Kfs±Bt±Hbl), altered ultramafic rocks (Chl+Trem+Tlc), metadolerites (Cpx+Pl±Bt±Qtz±Chl), banded magnetite quartzites and quartzites. Andalusite- and chlorite-bearing assemblages presumably suggest a retrograde origin. Investigation of quartz-free granulites of the area brings out some interesting and important observations, reflecting the presence of refractory phases. These granulites are devoid of sillimanite and contain corundum instead. Reaction textures in the gneisses include breakdown of garnet to form coronas and symplectites of orthopyroxene+cordierite, formation of cordierite from garnet+sillimanite+quartz and late retrograde biotite and biotite+quartz symplectites. In the mafic granulites, inclusions of quartz and hornblende within orthopyroxene are interpreted as being a part of the prograde assemblage. At a later stage orthopyroxene is also rimmed by hornblende. The quartz-free granulites display a variety of spectacular coronas, for example, successive rims on corundum consisting of spinel+sapphirine+cordierite±orthopyroxene, rare skeletal symplectitic intergrowth of sapphirine+cordierite+potash feldspar, and late retrograde formation of chlorite, corundum, spinel and andalusite from sapphirine±cordierite. Based on chemographic relationships and petrogenetic grids, a sequence of prograde, isothermal decompressive and retrograde reactions have been inferred. Quartz-free sapphirine granulites and mafic granulites record the highest P–T conditions (~7 kbar, 850°C), whereas the gneisses were formed at lower P–T conditions (~5 kbar, 800°C). In addition, the presence of andalusite-bearing rocks suggests a pressure of around 2.5 kbar. This change in pressure from 7 kbar to around 2.5 kbar suggests a decompressive path for the evolution of granulites in the study area, which indicates an uplift for the granulite-facies rocks from lower crustal conditions. The implications for supercontinent history are also addressed in light of available geochronological data.

Kinematics of constant arc length folding for different fold shapes

Basic mathematical functions are applied for the two-dimensional geometrical and kinematical analysis of different fold shapes. Relationships between different fold parameters are established and related to the bulk shortening taking place during folding under upper crustal conditions. The bulk shortening taking place during constant arc length folding is mathematically related to the bulk shortening during homogenous pure shear using a particular aspect ratio, which is for folding the ratio of amplitude to half wavelength and for pure shear the ratio of vertical to horizontal length of the deformed, initially square body. The evolution of the fold aspect ratio with bulk shortening is similar for a wide range of fold shapes and indicates that the fold aspect ratio allows a good estimate of the bulk shortening. The change of the geometry of individual layers across a multilayer sequence in disharmonic folding indicates a specific kinematics of multilayer folding, referred to here as “wrap folding”, which does not require significant flexural slip nor flexural flow. The kinematic analysis indicates that there is a critical value for constant arc length folding between shortening values of 30–40% (depending on the fold geometry). For shortening values smaller than the critical value limb rotation and fold amplitude growth are dominating. For shortening larger than this value, faulting, boudinage and foliation development are likely the dominating deformation process during continued shortening. The kinematical analysis of constant arc length folding can be used for estimating the bulk shortening taking place during multilayer folding which is an important component of the deformation of crustal rocks during the early history of shortening. The bulk shortening is estimated for a natural, multilayer detachment fold and the shortening estimates based on the kinematic analysis are compared and supported by numerical finite element simulations of multilayer detachment folding in power-law materials.

Rates of retrograde metamorphism and their implications for crustal rheology

Geofluids (2010) 10, 234–240AbstractThe rate of reaction of a natural hornblende garnet granulite with water under a range of mid‐ to lower crustal conditions has been investigated experimentally. In runs of between 7 and 84 days small but measurable amounts of water were consumed, and sheet silicates (300°C, 300 MPa and 400°C, 400 MPa) and/or secondary actinolite (400°C, 400 MPa and 500°C, 500 MPa) were observed to have grown. When normalized to the surface area of the starting materials, hydration rates were in the range of 2–5 × 10−8 g m−2 sec−1. These reaction rates imply that a film of water that infiltrated a planar crack with a half width of 100 μm would be completely consumed within c. 100 years. These results imply that where water infiltrates the crust along faults or underlying shear zones in response to a deformation, it will remain as a free phase for only a finite period of time, which in some cases will be less than the repeat time for major earthquakes in the fault system. Thus, the rheology of fault zones and shear zones is likely to be cyclical, with the zone becoming stronger with time as water is consumed, and then weakened by infiltration of water after each rupture.

Mineralogical and textural variation of silica minerals in hydrothermal flow-through experiments: Implications for quartz vein formation

We conducted hydrothermal flow-through experiments at 430 °C and 31 MPa to investigate the mechanism of silica precipitation on granite under crustal conditions. Two experiments were performed using different input solutions: a single-component Si solution, and a multi-component solution with minor Al, Na, and K. The degree of supersaturation with respect to quartz, Ω = CSi/CSi,Qtz,eq, where CSi and CSi,Qtz,eq indicate Si concentration in solutions and the solubility of quartz within water, respectively, decreased from 3–3.5 to <1.1 along the flow path. A variety of silica minerals formed during the experiments (opal-A, opal-C, chalcedony, and quartz), and their occurrences and modal abundances changed in response to Ω and the presence of additives in the solution. For near-equilibrium solutions (Ω ∼1.2), silica minerals were deposited on other surfaces in addition to quartz. In the single-component experiment, the dominant silica minerals changed in the order of opal-A → opal-C → quartz with decreasing Si concentration along the flow path. In contrast, in the multi-component experiment, quartz and minor chalcedony formed throughout the entire reaction vessel. This finding indicates that impurities (Na, K, and Al) in the solutions inhibited the precipitation of opal and enhanced the direct nucleation of quartz. The systematic appearance of metastable silica minerals were examined by nucleation processes and macroscopic precipitation kinetics. Our experimental results indicate that different precipitation mechanisms yield contrasting textures, which in turn suggests that vein textures can be used as indicators of solution chemistry within the fracture.

Simultaneous measurements of compressional wave and shear wave velocities, Poisson's ratio, and Vp/Vs under deep crustal pressure and temperature conditions: Example of silicified pelitic schist from Ryoke Belt, Southwest Japan

AbstractThe ultrasonic technique for measuring travel times of compressional and shear waves using dual‐mode transducers was adapted to a piston cylinder apparatus, allowing simultaneous measurements of travel times of compressional and shear waves of island arc samples under the high pressure and temperature conditions of island arcs. This method enables us to determine elastic properties and their pressure and temperature derivatives simultaneously. Furthermore, Vp/Vs can be directly determined from travel times of compressional and shear waves independently of length change due to compression or thermal expansion of rock samples under deep crustal conditions, providing more accurate Vp/Vs values than those determined from individual measurements of travel times of both elastic wave types using single‐mode transducers. Experimental techniques and results are demonstrated using data on silicified pelitic schist from the Ryoke Belt to 0.6 GPa. The simultaneous measurement gives Vp = 5.60 km/s, ∂Vp/∂P = 0.090 (km/s)/GPa, Vs = 3.37 km/s, ∂Vs/∂P = 0.05 (km/s)/GPa, σ = 0.216, and Vp/Vs = 1.66 at ambient conditions. The temperature derivatives were constrained from fitting using linear functions of temperature, yielding ∂Vp/∂T = −0.518 × 10−3 (km/s)/K and ∂Vs/∂T = −0.182 × 10−3 (km/s)/K. Performing simultaneous measurements of travel times of compressional and shear waves using dual‐mode transducers, it is possible to accurately determine Vp/Vs and Poisson's ratio of crustal minerals and rocks at deep crustal conditions to study the composition of the crustal interior, e.g. rock types and fluids below the hypocentral region of earthquakes or around bright spots.

Preface to the Special Issue on Potential Geohazards of the Taipei Metropolitan Area

The Taipei metropolitan area is located within a complex tectonic environment where several types of geohazards may readily occur. In order to better characterize and understand the tectonic environment and related surface processes that may threaten the residents of Taipei, the Taiwan Central Geological Survey launched a then newly integrated project a few years ago aimed at gathering up-todate tectonic, volcanic, seismic, geologic and geochemical data in the northern and offshore Taiwan. Many new and exciting findings have arisen from such a program and have provided further insight into the overall sources of geologic and seismic hazards around the Taipei metropolitan area. Earthquake threats for the Taipei metropolitan area come from several potential sources, including large earthquakes with epicenters located some distance from Taipei for example, the 921 Chi-Chi earthquake and earthquakes occurring offshore Hualien. If certain crustal conditions develop at the plate interface underneath the Taipei Basin and allow a reflection of seismic waves into the Taipei region, earthquakes can cause severe surface vibration resulting in serious damage. Another possible earthquake threat comes from fault activities at shallow depths such as the Shanchiao normal fault. Because most of the Taipei metropolitan area is located upon the soft Quaternary sediments of the geometrically complex Taipei Basin, it is important to better understand the physical properties of the basin sediment for seismic wave propagations. Several papers in this special issue address related issues of seismic wave properties and site responses in the Taipei metropolitan area. Furthermore, active volcanoes may also result in serious damage to society and surrounding environs as documented by numerous hazardous eruptions worldwide. Although no historical volcanic eruptions have been recorded in the Taiwan region, empirical and phenomenal evidence indicates that the Tatun volcano group and the Kueishantao volcanic island may include active volcanoes raising the critical question of how to evaluate the activities and threats of the volcanoes in Tatun and Kueishantao. Several papers address these questions in this issue to better characterize the status of volcanic activities and underlying processes. Here: Chen et al. (2010b) examine Holocene activities of the Shanchiao Fault by compiling sedimentary records, particularly depositional facies and available age dates of three boreholes in the Taipei Basin. The depositional history of the Taipei Basin since the Last Glacial Maximum can be quite well reconstructed using a simple back-stripping method. They point out tectonic subsidence events that may possibly be related to major earthquakes and suggest further studies of the fault activities are needed to explore other possibilities of earthquake events. Here Cheng et al. (2010) use available data to evaluate probabilistic seismic hazards including the attenuation relationship of the peak ground acceleration, fault-slip data, and seismicity. Important earthquake sources are pointed out in the metropolitan Taipei area. In addition to the long return earthquake period of active faults, the study calls for attention to the threats of high peak acceleration resulting from subduction zone earthquakes beneath the Taipei area. Recent surface deformation and changes may be monitored by new satellite-borne and airborne remote sensing techniques, particularly InSAR and LiDAR. Chang et al. (2010a) apply DInSAR and PSInSAR techniques to analyze the general uplift and subsidence pattern in northern Taiwan and show regions of surface change of the past decade as related to fault activities. Meanwhile, Chang et al. (2010b) present the mapping results of the Nankan lineament, which is considered to be an active fault as outlined by the Taiwan Central Geologic Survey, using the newly-derived airborne LiDAR topographic data and concludes that the lineament has not been tectonically active since the deposition of the alluvial fans, thus posing less threat to the Taipei area. Huang et al. (2010a) reconstruct two-dimensional motions of the magnitude 7.1 earthquake that occurred offshore eastern Taiwan in 2002 based on 89 free-field strong motion records in northern Taiwan. According to the study, seismic wave amplifications are obvious within the Taipei Basin, especially where the sediment is the thickest. Studying the same earthquake, Huang et al. (2010c) find that seismic waves travel within the Taipei Basin and have been reflected back from its western edge with a dominant frequency of about one Hz. Characterization of these seismic waves within the Taipei Basin should provide further information for prevention of shaking-induced hazards and importantly more realistic modeling of seismic propagation. Terr. Atmos. Ocean. Sci., Vol. 21, No. 3, I-III, June 2010

40Ar/39Ar Constraints on the tectonic history and architecture of the ultrahigh‐pressure Sulu orogen

AbstractNew 40Ar/39Ar ages are presented from the giant Sulu ultrahigh‐pressure (UHP) terrane and surrounding areas. Combined with U‐Pb ages, Sm‐Nd ages, Rb‐Sr ages, inclusion relationships, and geological relationships, they help define the orogenic events before, during and after the Triassic collision between the Sino–Korean and Yangtze Cratons. In the Qinling microcontinent, tectonism occurred between 2.0 and 1.4 Ga. The UHP metamorphism occurred in the Yangtze Craton between 240 and 222 Ma; its thermal effect on the Qinling microcontinent was limited to partial resetting of K‐feldspar 40Ar/39Ar ages. Subsequent unroofing at rates of 5–25 km Myr−1 brought the UHP terrane to crustal levels where it underwent a relatively short amphibolite facies metamorphism. The end of that metamorphism is marked by 40Ar/39Ar ages in the 219–210 Ma range, implying cooling at crustal depths at rates of 50–200 °C Myr−1. Ages in the 210–170 Ma range may reflect protracted cooling or partial resetting by Jurassic or Cretaceous magmatism. Jurassic 166–149 Ma plutonism was followed by cooling at rates of c. 15 °C Myr−1, suggesting relatively deep crustal conditions, whereas Cretaceous 129–118 Ma plutonism was succeeded by cooling at rates of c. 50 C Myr−1, suggesting relatively shallow crustal depths.

Laboratory simulation of fluid-driven seismic sequences in shallow crustal conditions

[1] We report new laboratory simulations of fluid-induced seismicity on pre-existing faults in sandstone. By introducing pore pressure oscillations, faults were activated or reactivated to generate seismic sequences. These sequences were analysed using a slip-forecast model. Furthermore, field data from the Monticello reservoir was used to verify the model. Our results suggest that short-term forecasting is reliant upon the final stages when crack communication begins, limiting reservoir-induced seismicity (RIS) forecasting strategies to short periods. In addition, our laboratory data confirms the general accuracy and robustness of short-term forecast techniques dealing with natural crack-linkage processes, whether strain driven or fluid driven, ranging from volcanic hazard mitigation to episodic tremors and slips. Finally, oscillating pore pressure can prolong the period of fluid-induced seismicity, and the aftershock decay rate is slower than that without oscillations.

Combined high pressure and heavy-ion irradiation: a novel approach

Swift heavy-ion irradiations of a wide variety of materials have been used to modify and manipulate the properties of solids at the nanoscale. Recently, these high-energy irradiations have been successfully combined with high-pressure experiments. Based on results obtained for zircon (ZrSiO(4)), this paper introduces this new experimental approach involving diamond anvil cells and large ion-accelerator facilities. This technique provides a wide spectrum of geoscience applications from nanoscale simulations of fission-track formation under crustal conditions to phase transitions of radiation-damaged minerals resulting from meteorite impact.

Trace element partitioning in the granulite facies

Analyses of trace elements in the mineral phases of granulites provide important information about the trace element distribution in the lower crust. Since granulites are often considered residues of partial melting processes, trace element characteristics of their mineral phases may record mineral/melt equilibria thus giving an opportunity to understand the nature and composition of melts in the lower continental crust. This study provides an extensive set of mineral trace element data obtained by LA-ICP-MS analyses of mafic and intermediate granulites from Central Finland. Mass balance calculations using the analytical data indicate a pronounced contribution of the accessory minerals apatite for the REE and ilmenite for the HFSE. Coherent mineral/mineral ratios between samples point to a close approach to equilibrium except for minerals intergrown with garnet porphyroblasts. Mineral trace element data were used for the formulation of a set of D mineral/melt partition coefficients that is applicable for trace element modelling under lower crustal conditions. D mineral/melt were derived by the application of predictive models and using observed constant mineral/mineral ratios. The comparison of the calculated D mineral/melt with experimental data as well as the relationship between mineral trace element contents and a leucosome with a composition close to an equilibrium melt provides additional constraints on mineral/melt partitioning. The D values derived in this study are broadly similar to magmatic partition coefficients for intermediate melt compositions. They provide a first coherent set of D values for Sc, V, Cr and Ni between clinopyroxene, amphibole, garnet, orthopyroxene, ilmenite and melt. In addition, they emphasize the strong impact that ilmenite exerts on the distribution of Nb and Ta.

Deformation mechanisms in the frontal Lesser Himalayan Duplex in Sikkim Himalaya, India

Understanding deformation mechanisms in Himalayan rocks is a challenging proposition due to the complex nature of the deformed rocks and their genesis. Crustal deformation in the Himalayan thrust belt typically occurs in elastico-frictional (EF) or quasi-plastic (QP) regimes at depths controlled mainly by regional strain-rate and geothermal gradient. However, material property, grain-size and their progressive changes during deformation are also important controlling factors. We present evidence of EF deformation from Gondwana rocks developed during the emplacement of one of the frontal horses (Jorthang horse) in the Lesser Himalayan Duplex (LHD) structure associated with Lesser Himalayan rocks in the footwall of the Ramgarh thrust in the Rangit window near Jorthang in the Sikkim Himalaya. The rocks in the horse exhibit systematic changes in microand meso-structures from an undeformed protolith to cataclasite suggesting that it was emplaced under elastico-frictional conditions. Meso- to micro-scale shear fractures are seen developed in Gondwana sandstone and slate while intercalated fine-grained shale-coal-carbonates are deformed by cataclastic flow suggesting that material property and grain-size have played an important role in the deformation of the Jorthang horse. In contrast, the hanging wall schists and quartzites of the Ramgarh thrust exhibit quasi-plastic deformation structures. This suggests that the Jorthang horse was emplaced under shallower crustal conditions than the antiformally folded Ramgarh thrust sheet even though the Ramgarh sheet presently overlies the Jorthang horse.

A pseudo adakite derived from partial melting of tonalitic to granodioritic crust, Kyushu, southwest Japan arc

Cretaceous peraluminous granitic intrusions occur in Kyushu in the southwest Japan arc as batholiths or stocks accompanied by metaluminous tonalite to granodiorite. The peraluminous intrusions are classed as adakitic based on Sr/Y–Y (ppm) relationships, but they contain abundant K-feldspar, a phase not common in typical adakites. To consider their significance in the arc system, we investigated the Tsutsugatake stock as representative of the intrusions exposed in central Kyushu. The Tsutsugatake rocks are mainly garnet-bearing two-mica leuco-granitoids. Their Sr/Y ratios and rare earth element concentrations are appropriate for adakite, but K 2O/Na 2O ratios (0.53–1.43), and Al 2O 3 (13.7–15.0 wt.%), MgO (0.20–0.55 wt.%), Sr (207–462 ppm), Cr (≤ 12 ppm), and Ni (≤ 8 ppm) contents differ from those of typical adakite. Geochemical modeling shows that the petrogenesis of the Tsutsugatake stock can be explained by partial melting of arc-type tonalite or adakitic granodiorite under middle to lower crustal conditions, leaving amphibole and plagioclase as residual phases. The differences between the Tsutsugatake stock and classical adakites lie in their source rocks and melting conditions. The Tsutsugatake source was not basaltic, and the melting pressure was insufficient to stabilize garnet. The Tsutsugatake rocks are here designated “pseudo adakites”. Such “pseudo adakites” may be found in both modern and ancient arcs, and would play an important role in crustal evolution as a member of the recycled constituent.

A pressure solution creep law for quartz from indentation experiments

Indenter experiments have been performed on quartz crystals in order to establish a pressure solution creep law relevant at upper to middle crustal conditions. This deformation mechanism contributes to Earth's crust geodynamics, controlling processes as different as fault permeability, strength, and stress evolution during interseismic periods or mechanochemical differentiation during diagenesis and metamorphism. Indenter experiments have been performed at 350°C and 20–120 MPa during months with differential stress varying from 25 to 350 MPa. Several experimental parameters were varied: nature of quartz (synthetic or natural), nature of fluid, manner in which the solid/solution/solid interface was filled, and orientation of the indented surfaces versus quartz crystallographic c axis. Significant strain rates could only be obtained when using high‐solubility solutions (NaOH 1 mol L−1). Displacement rates of the indenter were found activated by differential stress, with exponential dependence, as theoretically predicted. The mean thickness of the trapped fluid phase below the indenter was estimated in the range 2–10 nm. Moreover, the development of this trapped fluid phase was relatively fast and allowed fluid penetration into previously dry contact regions by marginal dissolution. The indenter displacement rate was driven by differential stress, and its kinetics was controlled by diffusion along the trapped fluid and the development of a morphological roughness along the interface. Conversely, marginal strain energy driven dissolution was observed around the indenter, and its kinetics was controlled by free‐surface reaction. These experimental results are applied to model the interactions between pressure solution and brittle processes in fault zones, providing characteristic time scales for postseismic transitory creep and sealing processes in quartz‐rich rocks.

Matrix rheology effects on reaction rim growth II: coupled diffusion and creep model

AbstractChemical reactions and phase changes generally involve volume changes. In confined settings this will cause a mechanical deformation of the matrix that surrounds the reaction sites where the volume change takes place. Consequently, mineral reactions and the mechanical response of the rock matrix are coupled. A companion paper in this issue illustrates this coupling with experiments where quartz and olivine react to form enstatite reaction rims under ambient conditions of 1 GPa and 1000 °C. It has been demonstrated that for identical run conditions, the thickness of the reaction rims depends on whether quartz grains are embedded in an olivine matrix or olivine grains are included in a quartz matrix. The experimental conditions, the nature of the results, and the large volume change of the reaction (−6%) leave only viscous creep as a viable matrix response to the reaction progress. A model is developed for this reaction, which combines diffusion of chemical components through the growing rim and viscous creep of the matrix. The resulting rate law for reaction rim growth in spherical geometry shows that the progress rate is proportional to the reaction overstepping and controlled by the slower of the two competing processes; either diffusion or creep. If diffusion is rate limiting the usual linear proportionality between rim growth and results. However, if viscous creep is rate limiting, then the reaction rates are reduced and may become effectively creep controlled. With respect to the experiments in the companion paper it is inferred that the effective viscosity of the two matrix materials, i.e. polycrystalline quartz and olivine, differ by approximately one order of magnitude with the quartz being the stronger one. The absolute values of the inferred viscosities correspond well to published flow laws. The rheological properties of natural rocks are well within the parameter range for which significant mechanical control on reaction rim growth is expected. This implies that for the interpretation of natural reaction rims and corona structures both diffusion and mechanical control need to be considered. In addition the mechanical effect also needs to be considered when interdiffusion coefficients are retrieved from rim growth experiments. This should also be considered for geospeedometry analyses. Furthermore, the control on reaction rate because of slow creep of the matrix is expected to be even more important, compared to the experiments, under colder crustal conditions and may contribute substantially to the frequent observation of only partially completed reactions. We suggest that this phenomenon is referred to as ‘mechanical closure’, which may be an important mechanism in the kinetic displacement of the boundaries between the stability fields of phase assemblages.

Late Neoproterozoic alkaline magmatism in the Arabian–Nubian Shield: the postcollisional A-type granite of Sahara–Umm Adawi pluton, Sinai, Egypt

The Sahara–Umm Adawi pluton is a Late Neoproterozoic postcollisional A-type granitoid pluton in Sinai segment of the Arabian–Nubian Shield that was emplaced within voluminous calc-alkaline I-type granite host rocks during the waning stages of the Pan-African orogeny and termination of a tectonomagmatic compressive cycle. The western part of the pluton is downthrown by clysmic faults and buried beneath the Suez rift valley sedimentary fill, while the exposed part is dissected by later Tertiary basaltic dykes and crosscut along with its host rocks by a series of NNE-trending faults. This A-type granite pluton is made up wholly of hypersolvus alkali feldspar granite and is composed of perthite, quartz, alkali amphibole, plagioclase, Fe-rich red biotite, accessory zircon, apatite, and allanite. The pluton rocks are highly evolved ferroan, alkaline, and peralkaline to mildly peraluminous A-type granites, displaying the typical geochemical characteristics of A-type granites with high SiO2, Na2O + K2O, FeO*/MgO, Ga/Al, Zr, Nb, Ga, Y, Ce, and rare earth elements (REE) and low CaO, MgO, Ba, and Sr. Their trace and REE characteristics along with the use of various discrimination schemes revealed their correspondence to magmas derived from crustal sources that has gone through a continent–continent collision (postorogenic or postcollisional), with minor contribution from mantle source similar to ocean island basalt. The assumption of crustal source derivation and postcollisional setting is substantiated by highly evolved nature of this pluton and the absence of any syenitic or more primitive coeval mafic rocks in association with it. The slight mantle signature in the source material of these A-type granites is owed to the juvenile Pan-African Arabian–Nubian Shield (ANS) crust (I-type calc-alkaline) which was acted as a source by partial melting of its rocks and which itself of presumably large mantle source. The extremely high Rb/Sr ratios combined with the obvious Sr, Ba, P, Ti, and Eu depletions clearly indicate that these A-type granites were highly evolved and require advanced fractional crystallization in upper crustal conditions. Crystallization temperature values inferred average around 929°C which is in consistency with the presumably high temperatures of A-type magmas, whereas the estimated depth of emplacement ranges between 20 and 30 km (upper-middle crustal levels within the 40 km relatively thick ANS crust). The geochronologically preceding Pan-African calc-alkaline I-type continental arc granitoids (the Egyptian old and younger granites) associated with these rocks are thought to be the crustal source of f this A-type granite pluton and others in the Arabian–Nubian Shield by partial melting caused by crustal thickening due to continental collision at termination of the compressive orogeny in the Arabian–Nubian Shield.

Petrology of the Yugu peridotites in the Gyeonggi Massif, South Korea: Implications for its origin and hydration process

AbstractPeridotites exposed in the Yugu area in the Gyeonggi Massif, South Korea, near the boundary with the Okcheon Belt, exhibit mylonitic to strongly porphyroclastic textures, and are mostly spinel lherzolites. Subordinate dunites, harzburgites, and websterites are associated with the lherzolites. Amphiboles, often zoned from hornblende in the core to tremolite in the rim, are found only as neoblasts. Porphyroclasts have recorded equilibrium temperatures of about 1000°C, whereas neoblasts denote lower temperatures, about 800°C. Olivines are Fo90–91 in lherzolites and Fo91 in a dunite and a harzburgite. The Cr# (= Cr/(Cr + Al) atomic ratio) of spinels varies together with the Fo of olivines, being from 0.1 to 0.3 in lherzolites and around 0.5 in the dunite and harzburgite. The Na2O content of clinopyroxene porphyroclasts is relatively low, around 0.3 to 0.5 wt% in the most fertile lherzolite. The Yugu peridotites are similar in porphyroclast mineral chemistry not to continental spinel peridotites but to sub‐arc or abyssal peridotites. Textural and mineralogical characteristics indicate the successive cooling with hydration from the upper mantle to crustal conditions for the Yugu peridotites. Almost all clinopyroxenes and amphiboles show the same U‐shaped rare earth element (REE) patterns although the level is up to ten times higher for the latter. The hydration was associated with enrichment in light REE, resulting from either a slab‐derived fluid or a fluid circulating in the crust. The mantle‐wedge or abyssal peridotites were emplaced into the continental crust as the Yugu peridotite body during collision of continents to form a high‐pressure metamorphic belt in the Gyeonggi Massif. The peridotites from the Gyeonggi Massif exhibit lower‐pressure equilibration than peridotites, with or without garnets, from the Dabie–Sulu Collision Belt, China, which is possibly a westward extension of the Gyeonggi Massif.

Effect of crystal preferred orientations on the thermal diffusivity of quartz polycrystalline aggregates at high temperature

Thermal diffusivity of synthetic quartz single-crystals and natural polycrystalline aggregates were measured using a modified Angström method at ambient pressure and up to 800 °C in order to investigate the effect of crystal preferred orientation on thermal diffusivity of quartz rich rocks. The thermal diffusivity tensor of quartz was determined by measuring the thermal diffusivity of an oriented synthetic quartz single-crystal along the [100] and [001] directions. A naturally deformed, fine-grained quartzite mylonite, was used to compare the single crystal properties with aggregate properties. Using the crystal preferred orientations (CPO) measured by the Electron Back Scattered Diffraction (EBSD) method and the measured thermal diffusivity tensor of quartz, the three-dimensional aggregate thermal diffusivity was modelled using volume averaging models. In order to test the validity of these models that are only based on the properties of the constituent minerals, the thermal diffusivity was then measured on oriented cores as a function of temperature, along three orthogonal directions, parallel to the ( X-lineation, Y, Z-pole to foliation) structural frame. Both modelled and direct measurement of thermal diffusivity show an anisotropy of thermal diffusivity, heat transport being more effective parallel to Y-direction and less effective parallel to the lineation X-direction. Thermal diffusivities measured in a given direction on the natural rock are lower by less than 10% than the modelled thermal diffusivity in the same direction, showing that rock imperfections have a weak effect on heat transport. In addition, the modelled thermal diffusivity anisotropy based on the characterization of crystal orientations and thermal diffusivity tensor shows a good agreement with measurements in both α and β stability field. This validation of the petrophysical simulation allows for evaluating the 3D thermal diffusivity of quartz rich rocks in different crustal conditions. The 3D thermal diffusivity of five naturally deformed quartzites displaying quartz fabrics expected in different crustal pressure and temperature ranges were simulated. The resulting thermal diffusivity anisotropies of quartzites range between 40% and 10%, depending on temperature, crystallographic fabric patterns and fabric strength. Under crustal conditions, quartzites deformed in the granulite facies display a high thermal diffusivity in the ( XZ) foliation plane, whereas quartzites deformed in greenschist facies have highest thermal diffusivity in the ( Z) direction normal to the foliation plane.