Cross-cultural Comparative Studies Research Articles

Mapping Cultural Diversity within India: A Meta-analysis of Some Recent Studies

Cross-cultural comparative studies mostly have been based on the assumption of cultural homogeneity that equates culture with nation. This assumption overlooks the cultural diversity that might exist within a nation. This article is based on the review of four empirical studies conducted by J.B.P. Sinha and his associates focusing on cultural diversity within India. A review of these studies revealed seven pan-Indian cultural preferences: (a) collectivist orientation; (b) respect for status and power; (c) primacy of personalized relationship; (d) desire to be embedded in an in-group; (e) familism; (f) context-sensitive (situational) behaviour; and (g) cynical view about others. However, it also revealed location-specific cultural preferences. The authors have analyzed these preferences, extracted from the findings of these studies for those locations which have been covered in more than one study, to present an holistic picture of the culture of each location. Sinha and his associates view cultural differences among various locations as a consequence of different degrees of infrastructural development in those locations. The authors are inclined to argue that cultural change is context sensitive and depends on the historical and cultural legacy inherited by a location. They argue for an evolutionary-emic approach to study cultural diversity within India.

Health-related quality of life in patients with chronic fatigue syndrome: An international study

Objective: Chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) has been reported worldwide. Our objectives were to determine if patients from different countries have similar profiles of impairments. Methods: Health-related quality of life (HRQoL) was assessed in 740 CFS patients in the US, 82 in the UK, and 65 in Germany using the eight subscales of the Short-Form General Health Survey (SF-36). To examine the internal structure, factor analyses were performed. Results: Overall, there was a remarkable similarity in HRQoL among all CFS patients, regardless of location. Patients scored two to three standard deviations below normal on six subscales and one standard deviation below normal on the other two subscales. Factor analysis suggested a two-factor model where the same six subscales constitute the first factor and the two others the second factor. Conclusion: HRQoL is poor in CFS patients from three countries. This study is a first step towards conducting further comparative cross-cultural and international studies.

A Comparison of Symptoms of Behavioral Disturbances in Yoruba and African American Individuals With Dementia

Comparative cross-cultural studies represent a great opportunity for delineating risk factors for the dementias by providing a much wider diversity of both environmental exposures and genetic variation than studies within industrialized countries. Similarly, studies of the behavioral disturbances of dementia that allow for identification of similarities and differences may be useful both in understanding the etiology of these disorders and in determining the best approach to management. So far, few such comparative studies exist.

The future of cultural psychiatry: an international perspective.

Cultural psychiatry has evolved along 3 lines: 1) cross-cultural comparative studies of psychiatric disorders and traditional healing; 2) efforts to respond to the mental health needs of culturally diverse populations that include indigenous peoples, immigrants, and refugees; and 3) the ethnographic study of psychiatry itself as the product of a specific cultural history. These studies make it clear that culture is fundamental both to the causes and course of psychopathology and also to the effectiveness of systems of healing. The provision of mental health services in multicultural societies has followed different models that reflect their specific histories of migration and ideologies of citizenship. Globalization has influenced psychiatry through socioeconomic effects on the prevalence and course of mental disorders, changing notions of ethnocultural identity, and the production of psychiatric knowledge. A cultural perspective can help clinicians and researchers become aware of the hidden assumptions and limitations of current psychiatric theory and practice and can identify new approaches appropriate for treating the increasingly diverse populations seen in psychiatric services around the world.

Dementia and Ethnicity

Ethnic differences in rates of dementia nationally, within multiethnic communities, and internationally have important repercussions. The question "Do ethnic differences exist in rates of dementia?" is a crucial one that has implications for service delivery and also offers opportunities for future research on possible etiological factors. Epidemiological surveys suggest that ethnic and geographical differences do occur in rates of dementia, but cross-cultural surveys are fraught with problems. The need for further methodologically sound, cross-cultural comparative studies is paramount to confirm or disclaim the ethnic differences observed to date.

Adapting tests for use in multiple languages and cultures

There is a growing interest in using tests constructed and validated for use in one language and culture in other languages and cultures. Sometimes these tests when adapted for use in a second language and culture can further research and meet informational needs, and other times, cross-cultural comparative studies can be carried out. But, whatever the purpose for the test adaptations, questions arise concerning the validity of inferences from these adapted tests.

The Comparative Method in Anthropology [and Comments and Reply

Cross-cultural comparison is a common method of testing hypotheses regarding the co-evolution of elements of cultures or of the adaptiveness of a cultural practice to some aspect of the environment. It has long been recognized, however, that cultures are not but rather may share many cultural elements by virtue of common ancestry and proximity. Attempts to address this issue, known as Galton's problem, range from statistically removing confounding variables to using a standard sample of independent cultures. We show here that when testing any hypothesis of co-evolution one should not attempt to identify cultures or to create them statistically. Rather, cross-cultural comparative studies must be based upon the identification of events of cultural change. Once this principle is applied, it becomes apparent that it is in fact groups of closely related cultures that are potentially the most informative for testing cross-cultural hypotheses. Constructing phylogenies of cultures and placing upon them instances of cultural elements' arising or changing is an essential part of this task.

A Central Question in Cross-Cultural Research: Do Employees of Different Cultures Interpret Work-related Measures in an Equivalent Manner?

Within the present research, a covariance structure analytic procedure is applied to test the stability and transferability of organizational measures between groups in cross-cultural research. Findings support the need to establish the equivalency of constructs and measures prior to interpreting differences in means of self-report variables between culturally diverse groups. Indeed, for two measures, the cultural groups were using different conceptual frames of reference when responding to the items. For a third measure, the groups were calibrating the true scores differently. However, the source of the calibration difference was identified and subsequently accounted for in later analyses. Thus, differences between latent means for the culturally diverse groups were calculated and interpreted. The approach outlined in this paper is proffered as yielding valuable insights regarding the appropriateness of comparative cross-cultural studies.

Effects of contact, conflict, and social identity on interethnic group hostilities

This study examines the effects of three major (contact, conflict, and social identity) theories of intergroup hostilities on three outgroup hostility components (behavioral intentions, affective reactions, and cognitive evaluations) across three ethnic “ingroup” samples (Whites, Blacks, and Asians). Each of 484 subjects participating in this study took two forms of the survey concerning two other “outgroups.” The general proposition of each theory was tested separately for three ethnic groups, as well as for the total sample. In general, each theory was validated to some degree for one or more ethnic groups, and some theories exhibited more power than others, depending on the types (components) of hostility and ethnic groups. Specifically, only for the White sample, the three theories were upheld on all three hostility components. Comments were made regarding the need of comparative cross-cultural and cross-theory studies of intergroup hostilities for future theory development, empirical research, and practical applications.

A central question in cross-cultural research: Do employees of different cultures interpret work-related measures in an equivalent manner?

Within the present research, a covariance structure analytic procedure is applied to test the stability and transferability of organizational measures between groups in cross-cultural research. Findings support the need to establish the equivalency of constructs and measures prior to interpreting differences in means of self-report variables between culturally diverse groups. Indeed, for two measures, the cultural groups were using different conceptual frames of reference when responding to the items. For a third measure, the groups were calibrating the true scores differently. However, the source of the calibration difference was identified and subsequently accounted for in later analyses. Thus, differences between latent means for the culturally diverse groups were calculated and interpreted. The approach outlined in this paper is proffered as yielding valuable insights regarding the appropriateness of comparative cross-cultural studies.

Comparative Cross—Cultural Studies: A New Opportunity

Comparative Cross—Cultural Studies: A New Opportunity

The Unity of Man in Ancient Chinese Philosophy

In the history of Western thought, the philosophical study of man has been part of the philosopher's pursuits from the time of the ancient Greeks. But after a lapse of over two thousand years, the study in this field remains not much developed and its achievements are far from satisfactory. Already in 1928, Max Scheler in his Man's Place in Nature pointed out the troubled condition of the philosophical study of man: “Man is more a problem to himself at the present time than ever before in all recorded history… We do not have a unified idea of man. The increasing multiplicity of the special sciences, valuable as they are, tend to hide man's nature more than reveal it.” In more recent times, Paul Ricoeur, although approaching the issue from a somewhat different perspective, nevertheless came to a similar conclusion. In his essay The Antinomy of Human Reality and the Problem of Philosophical Anthropology, he stated: “The sciences of man are dispersed into separate disciplines and literally do not know what they are talking about.” It seems to me that part of the explanation for this Situation lies in the way of thinking of Western learning, with its peculiar segmentation of fields of inquiry. During this century, some branches of human sciences, such as psychology, sociology, ethnology, political science, economics and psychoanalysis, have developed rapidly. They deal with the study of man from different angles, and have really accumulated a rich wealth of data. But what man is as such is still not clear. Unless we succeed in forming a comprehensive view of man as a whole, we will not be able to have a real insight into human nature and will be lost in a mass of disconnected and isolated data which seem to lack conceptual unity. We must recognize that the sciences of man in the contemporary Western world belong exclusively to the Western cultural tradition which originated in the early Greek civilization with its own concepts of values. They are entirely divorced from the other great cultures of the world, for instance, the Indian and Chinese cultures, which are as important as the Greek culture in the history of civilization. In order to reach a deeper understanding of man, it is perhaps necessary to make cross-cultural comparative studies. Therefore a short survey of the studies of man in ancient Chinese philosophy may not be superfluous. I would like to confine my survey to the early Chinese philosophers of the pre-Qin period, not only because it is almost impossible to deal with the entire history of Chinese philosophical ideas spanning over two thousand years in an article, but also because the ancient time is the most creative and most important period in the development of Chinese thought.

East Asian Medicine in Urban Japan: Varieties of Medical Experience.

An excellent description and analysis of East Asian medicine ...Based on fieldwork conducted in Japan during 1973 and 1974, which involved the use of a variecy of participant-observer techniques, as well as extensive reading in primary and secondary sources in Japanese and English, Lock's study makes a significant contribution to our understanding of an important dimension of life in Japan...In well-written chapters dealing with the philosophical foundations and historical development of East Asian medicine, Japanese attitudes regarding health, illness, and the human body, detailed description of kanpo clinics, herbal pharmacies, acupuncture and moxibustion clinics, shiatsu and anma clinics, East Asian medical schools as well as the interactions between various providers and patients (customers), Lock develops the cultural thesis ...In the process, she provides information on things most visitors to Japan have seen, heard, felt, and smelled but rarely understood. (Journal of Asian Studies). Breaks important new ground . Lock discusses concrete medical practice and its cultural significance in general...rich in comparisons, engrossing to read, and analytically penetrating ...an important and absorbing It is an engaging account of how at least some Japanese people respond to universal problems. Most readers will obtain from it their first clear impression of what East Asian medicine actually is and does. (Journal of Japanese Studies). Of considerable significance for comparative cross-cultural studies of medicine, of which this is the best account for a Japanese setting that we now possess. (Monumenta Nipponica). Both Japan specialists and medical anthropologists will be stimulated, challenged, and engaged by this book. (Medical Anthropology Newsletter).

Concepts and a model for the comparison of medical systems as cultural systems

A model and related concepts are present for ethnographic and comparative research on medical systems as cultural systems. The major structural and functional aspects of the health care system model are briefly sketched. Clinical realities, explanatory model (EM) transactions in health care relationships, a distinction between disease/illness, cultural healing and cultural iatrogenesis, and the core adaptive taks of health care systems are concepts based on this model which have practical clinical and public health, as well as research, implications. A number of hypotheses are outlined which can be used to focus medical ethnographies and to construct comparative cross-cultural studies of health care systems. The model, concepts, and hypotheses attempt to exploit medical anthropology's fundamental tension between medical and anthropological interests; and thereby to contribute to the development of theory that is original to this discipline.

Comparisons of Psychopathology Across Cultures

Comparative cross-cultural studies of psychopathology were reviewed in relation to the parameters of incidence, mode of manifestation, patterning, response to treatment, and outcome. A general model was proposed of regarding such differences as the joint function of subject, observer, setting, community, and instrument factors. The findings surveyed, even in their present nondefinitive state, favor the notion of cultural plasticity of psychopathology and, moreover, converge in suggesting that psychopathology represents a caricature and an exaggeration of culturally shared adaptive patterns of behavior. For a more conclusive examination of this possibility, concurrent research on normal and abnormal subjects drawn from several cultures was proposed and a number of specific modes of implementing this objective were presented.

Social Space in Interdisciplinary Perspective

DRAMATIC and exciting challenges confront geographers today. Revolutionary changes in empirical social patterns have spelled obsolescence for many traditional analytical procedures; radical transformations in the scholastic world have raised questions concerning the philosophical basis of social-science procedures. Behaviorists and existentialists pose the fundamental question: can science continue to serve a useful function by measuring and explaining the objective face and underlying mechanics of social reality, or must it also penetrate and incorporate its subjective dimensions?' As Edward T. Hall2 so convincingly poses it: does time talk, does space speak? How does the silent language of time and space influence mankind's cultural variations? Geographers ask themselves: should we be satisfied with drafting an opaque, objective map of social patterns in space, or must we supplement this with the subjective or inside view?3 This problem is certainly not new. Jules Sion's 1908 study of Normandy showed how differences in the mentality of Norman and Picard peasants reflected and reinforced the contrasts between two physically similar regions.4 Pierre Gourou's cleverly applied notion of civilisation proved how attitudes and skills influenced the evolution of landscape in the Far East.5 Walter Firey's well-known Boston study6 demonstrated how cultural variations and traditions have influenced land values in an urban area, and Renee Rochefort's Sicilian study7 left little doubt concerning the predominant influence in social life on that island: the Mafia! In principle and in practice, then, substantive work demonstrates the need for a penetrating analysis of this subjective component in geographical study. A recent article by Paul Claval8 even suggests that the geographer's unique contribution might well be in comparative crosscultural studies of group mentality. Few scholars, however, have given concrete and appli-