Crop Raiding Research Articles

Human-wildlife conflict and the likelihood of reporting losses in Nepal

All development indices are changing due to increased exploitation of nature and growing economies in developing countries. This situation may increase the intensity of conflict between humans and wild species, such as large carnivores. Despite the increasing intensity of human-wildlife conflicts and the existing compensation scheme that compensates for the loss, most losses to human-wildlife conflicts are not reported to authorities. Thus, this study was conducted in the Banke National Park of Nepal to explore possible factors influencing the propensity to report losses. All 197 surveyed participants reported suffering from crop raids by wild animals, and 80 respondents (40.60 %) reported livestock depredation. Results revealed that socio-economic factors, such as age (β = 1.99, SE = 1.61), gender (β = -0.56, SE = 0.28), employment (β = -1.10, SE = 0.68), family size (β = 1.54, SE = 0.54), and conflict with certain species including Bengal tiger (β = 0.48, SE 0.24), leopard (β = 0.92, SE 0.35), elephant (β = 0.58, SE 0.34), and monkey (β = 0.56, SE 0.27), were statistically significant at p values ≤ 0.01, ≤ 0.05, and ≤ 0.10, in influencing the likelihood of reporting a loss. Except for gender and employment, all other factors positively influenced the likelihood of reporting a loss. These findings could be considered while formulating/executing policy guidelines for compensation or any policy related to protected areas to improve reporting rates. This study can also initiate future studies in other protected or forested areas globally.

Conflito entre humanos e ursos-negros: invasão de plantações pelo urso-negro-asiático (Ursus thibetanus) em Azad Jammu e Caxemira, Paquistão

Asiatic black bear has long been in conflict with human beings crop raiding is a major cause of this conflict frequently noted in South Asia. Crops raided by black bears affected by temporal, spatial and anthropogenic attributes. Insight in this conflict and its mitigation is vital for the conservation of this threatened species. Present study aimed to evaluate crop raiding by black bears in the mountainous region of Azad Jammu and Kashmir. Field surveys were carried out to observe spatial and temporal crop raiding features between 2015-2020 and data gathered using designed questionnaires randomly tailored in villages nearby the forests. Results revealed that maize was the sole crop raided by black bears. A total of 28-acre area was raided by black bear in the fall season (Aug-November) resulting in a damage of 51 metric tons, whole raiding was carried out at night. Each respondent received crop damage on 0.09 acre with a loss of 0.17 metric ton yield. Crop quantity and area were significantly correlated to each other. District Neelum shared 49% of the total crop loss, while 47% of the maize was raided at the altitudinal range of 2100-2500 m. crop raiding was highly significantly ( χ 2 = 1174.64 ; d f = 308 ; p < 0.01 ) dependent upon distance to the forest. Linear regression revealed that maize quantity was determined by area, time and the total field area. Farmers faced 3.8 million PKRs loss due to crop damage by black bears. Despite the huge loss, the majority (23%) of the respondents did not respond to the query on mitigation measures indicating a poor adaptation of preventive measures. Preferred strategy to avoid crop damage was making noise (27.8%) when bears attacked their crops. A start of compensation scheme to the farmers is recommended that will have turned their negative attitude into a positive one toward the wildlife and black bear particularly. Study provides a new insight in human-bear conflict, particularly in spatial and temporal context of crop raiding in AJ&K.

Human- common hippo (Hippopotamus amphibius)-conflict in the Dhidhessa Wildlife Sanctuary and its surrounding, Southwestern Ethiopia.

The common hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius) is one of the most endangered mega herbivore in Africa. Although the human-hippo conflict (HHC) is currently escalating due to habitat loss, little is known about the scope of the conflict and potential mitigation measures. From 2021 to 2022, the extent of HHC, the perception of local inhabitants towards the animal, and its impacts on the conservation of the hippo were assessed within and in the surrounding areas of Dhidhessa Wildlife Sanctuary, southwestern Ethiopia. A total of 227 households were used as a data sources, participating in the questionnaire survey, focus group discussion and key informant interviews. Direct field observations were also used as key data source. Crop raiding and damage (63%, n = 143), was the most severely reported source of conflict, followed by direct human attack (22.9%, n = 52). Livestock predation and increased hippo mortality were also common types of HHC in the area. According to the study, the majority of respondents (74.4%, n = 169) agreed that the trend of conflict was increasing, while 16.7% (n = 38) argued that there was no change. Food scarcities in the buffer zone, as well as agricultural expansion in the area, have been identified as major drivers of HHC. The majority of respondents had a negative attitude toward hippo conservation; however, there were differences based on gender, age, and educational level. The major traditional hippo conflict mitigation strategies in the area include guarding, fencing, and trenching. Field observation revealed that a large extent of the former grazing and ranging areas of hippo in the area are heavily encroached and taken over by large private and public agricultural investments. Vacating and recovering at least the former buffer areas dedicated to the wildlife in the area and modern, non-lethal mitigation strategies are recommended for better conservation and safeguarding of the currently good-sized hippo population of the sanctuary.

The human-wildlife conflict in Musk Deer National Park, Neelum Gureze Valley, Azad Jammu & Kashmir, Pakistan.

Growing human population is a solemn risk to biodiversity at a global level. Massive anthropogenic pressure and invasion in the natural habitats initiated the human-wildlife conflict in rural areas. Present study aimed to assess human-wildlife conflict in Musk Deer National Park (MDNP) from 2013 to 2018. Results revealed an estimated 241784 nomadic and 5589 residential livestock heads grazed in different areas of MDNP during the summer season. A total of 126 heads were depredated by carnivores during the study period. Majority (n=39) of livestock heads were killed in May (n=29). Livestock depredation resulted in economic losses worth 3.115 million PKRs (25744 US$) to the herder community while farmers received 1.629 million PKRs (13466 US$) losses due to crop raiding. Most (64%) of the respondents believed human-wildlife conflict heightened due to scarcity of food or prey in the natural habitats of carnivores. Majority (92%) of the respondents did not like the presence of predators in MDNP. Loss compensation schemes could turn this negative attitude into the positive one and increase tolerance about the presence of carnivores in their vicinity. This study provides an insight into the human-wildlife conflict in MDNP and paves a way for understanding the conflict and conservation of carnivore species in the study area.

Socioeconomic status of the people and their attitude toward conservation in Parsa National Park, Nepal

This study aims to investigate the socioeconomic status of communities living in proximity to a park and their attitudes towards conservation. The questionnaires used in this study were carefully designed to achieve the desired research objectives. The majority of people living adjacent to the park depend on agriculture and livestock farming for their livelihood. People also benefit from the forest's resources in many aspects. People’s perceptions of wildlife conservation vary widely and are influenced by various factors such as economic status, cultural background, education status, awareness level, and personal experiences. Respondents with higher education status have been found to exhibit positive attitudes towards conservation. Results have shown that 70% of respondents who live near the park claim that coexistence with wildlife is becoming increasingly problematic. While the respondents are pleased with the practical conservation strategies that have contributed to the rise in wildlife populations, they are concerned about the increasing conflicts with wildlife. Crop raiding is a serious problem in several villages located near dense forests. Livestock depredation is another major issue that has been observed in the same area. Wildlife has been known to attack and kill livestock, causing a significant loss of income for the farmers in these villages. Many people feel that the lack of effective compensation mechanisms has led to a sense of antagonism towards both authorities and conservation efforts as a whole. The importance of effective compensation mechanisms in conservation efforts cannot be overstated. Some of the respondents have noted that the development of ecotourism has the potential to mitigate human-wildlife conflict. Ecotourism provides jobs, income, and other economic opportunities that help improve their socioeconomic status and, in turn, promote conservation.

Human-Wildlife Conflict and Coexistence

Man-animal conflict is a very complex issue which not only involves disruption of forest ecosystem but also a very weak legal support system while establishing wildlife corridors in the protected areas. Developmental projects have also taken a heavy toll on the very existence of wildlife and its symbiotic relationship with the forest ecosystem. The most common causes of human-wildlife conflict are livestock predation, crop raiding, loss of human life, animal death, damage to property, and injuries to people and wildlife. There are some valid reasons for increased man-animal conflicts in the recent past and they are changes in land use patterns (change from protected forest patches to agricultural, horticultural, and monoculture plantations) which destroy wildlife, livestock grazing, unscientific structures and practices of forest management in the country, allowing cattle to graze into forest areas and decreased prey base caused by poaching of herbivores leading to carnivores wandering out of forests in search of prey to indulge in cattle lifting and preying on human children.

Lunar phase as a dynamic landscape of fear factor affecting elephant crop raiding potential

Risk assessment relies on cost–benefit analysis by prey species in relation to predator behavior. The lunar cycle can have strong influences on the way that predator and prey species behave in their environment as light levels can influence activity patterns. By examining how lunar phase influences behavior, we may be able to better predict instances of human–wildlife conflict. As part of the Elephants and Sustainable Agriculture in Kenya project, over 5 years of study have been dedicated to mitigating human–elephant conflict in the Kasigau Wildlife Corridor in southern Kenya, focusing on the construction of deterrent fences and the collection of environmental data in and bordering the Rukinga Wildlife Sanctuary. Elephant presence around crop fields was hypothesized to have a negative relationship with lunar light levels because of an increase in perceived risk from typically greater human activity with moonlight, and a positive relationship with increased darkness during the waning moon phases. The lunar phase data were compared to elephant presence within 12 m of experimental crop fields along the boundary of their wild habitat and human agricultural land to provide insight for potential crop raiding events. Elephants were present significantly less during the full and gibbous moon phases when compared to the new moon phase, and significantly more during the new and waning moon phases. Our findings are being shared with the farmers living in the KWC and may be useful to others living in high HEC areas by providing a form of early warning system that also may have broader applications in the mitigation of other human–wildlife interactions.

Social and ecological outcomes of tropical dry forest restoration through invasive species removal in central India

Tropical dry forests (TDFs) support endemic biodiversity, and the livelihoods of millions of people globally. Invasive species, such as Lantana camara, are a predominant cause of degradation of TDFs. We examined lesser-studied vocalizing fauna and social outcomes of TDF restoration through Lantana removal, focusing on a Central Indian TDF. We quantified biodiversity using acoustics in 55 locations in restored, unrestored, and Low Lantana Density (LLD) forest sites and surveyed 656 households across villages adjacent to these forest sites. Our ecological analysis showed that in comparison to unrestored and LLD sites, restoration was not significantly associated with a different acoustic space occupancy (ASO) in higher frequencies (9–24 kHz) during night time hours, meaning restoration does not impact nocturnal vocalising or stridulating species. However, restored and LLD sites had significantly lower ASO in the day time hours, potentially due to differences in the insect community when Lantana is absent. Through the household surveys, we found that the highest number of respondents across all the three types of sites valued the cash payment they received for participating in restoration efforts. Perceptions of lower amounts of crop raiding by wild ungulates were associated by villagers with a restored site. This perception was mediated by the total number of households in a village with a restored site. Focusing restoration efforts on forests surrounding villages, restoration planners could reduce potential negative human-wildlife interactions. Combining ecological and social outcomes, we found that there are immediate positive outcomes of restoration for people. However, in the short term (three years following restoration), there was no significant biodiversity ‘benefit’. Based on our results, we recommend that restoration planners (1) consult local people about their perception of forest degradation and restoration because people’s perceptions can accurately mirror the condition of the forest; (2) provide a cash income for participating in restoration activities and (3) anticipate potential changes in the faunal species community in the short term when large scale invasive species removal takes place.

Camera Vision Based Animal Repellent System for Agriculture using Machine Learning

Abstract: The human-animal conflict of crop raiding has significantly increased due to human encroachment on wildlife habitats and deforestation. Wild animals, such as elephants, wild boar, and deer, pose a substantial threat to agricultural crops and farmers working in the fields, leading to significant crop losses. To address this concern, we present a comprehensive system that combines Computer Vision using Deep Convolution Neural Networks (DCNN) for precise species detection and recognition, along with the emission of species-specific ultrasound for repelling the wild animals. An edge computing device, equipped with a camera, is activated to execute the DCNN software, identifying potential threats.

Spatio‐temporal trend and mitigation of human–elephant conflict in Xishuangbanna, China

AbstractWith strict enforcement of the legal protection for Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in China, the elephant population has steadily increased from 146 elephants in 1976 to over 300 elephants in 2023. More elephants occur in highly fragmented and human‐dominated landscapes, resulting in serious human–elephant conflicts (HEC). We investigated the temporal and spatial aspects of HEC in Xishuangbanna Prefecture, China, from 2011‒2015 and 2016‒2020. We analyzed the characteristics of crop raiding, property damage, and human injury and death by elephants. Then, we employed a multi‐model ensemble forecasting framework to perform a risk assessment, and compared the changes in HEC hotspots to explore the factors influencing conflict. Our data revealed that 91,311 HEC compensations were recorded from 2011‒2020 with a total compensation amount of 127.01 million yuan (17.40 million USD), 89.75% of which was crop compensation. Areas of risk in 2011‒2015 and 2016‒2020 were 2,505 km2 and 3,157 km2, respectively, with an increase in area of 26.01%. The HEC risk areas were mainly distributed in nature reserves and surrounding areas, and &gt;65% of the risk areas were located in land‐use types dominated by artificial planting. Distance to farmland, distance to sparse wood, and slope had the greatest relative importance in the risk model evaluation. The mitigation measures that we recommend include strengthening the monitoring system for Asian elephants in areas with current and potential HEC risks; improving compensation mechanisms, such as determining accurate annual premiums, establishing a shared loss compensation mechanism, and ensuring a fair, transparent, and timely compensation process; and proposing habitat conservation measures, such as restoring suitable habitats for Asian elephants, establishing ecological corridors between nature reserves, and creating a nature reserve system based on the Asian Elephant National Park to enhance the habitat of Asian elephants.

Environmental factors induced crop raiding by wild Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) in the Eastern Economic Corridor, Thailand

Crop raiding are an increasing concern in wildlife conservation. This study identified the environmental factors that cause wild Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) to enter sub-urban and rural areas and share resources with humans in the Eastern Economic Corridor (EEC) in the eastern part of Thailand. The snowball method was used to interview villagers that had crop raiding experienced in seven provinces of the EEC and adjacent provinces in the eastern part of Thailand in 2020, and data from 183 households indicated that crop raiding had increased continuously from 2000 to 2020, especially in Chonburi, Chachoengsao, and Prachinburi provinces, which have seen increases in damaged agricultural areas. MaxEnt analysis showed an increase in incidents of crop raiding, while the elephants distribution area decreased from 9534 km2 in 2000 to 5199 km2 in 2010 and 4850 km2 in 2020. The study area has had land use changes in the low elevations from croplands of cassava and sugar cane to eucalyptus, para rubber, and fruits. These mixed crop plantations provide a pseudo-habitat for wild Asian elephants. The results from this study provide evidence that changes in land use and reduction of suitable habitat are factors that influenced the movement of wild Asian elephants to the rural agricultural areas and increased the incidents of crop raiding.

A case study on conflict intensity between humans and elephants at Teknaf Wildlife Sanctuary, Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh

Humans’ and elephants’ conflict is considered a common phenomenon in Bangladesh due to extreme anthropogenic interferences on elephant habitats. Concurrently, the landless people were encouraged to encroach on forest land due to their financial hardship and poor and weak forest management systems. We conducted our research work through frequent field visits, site-oriented positioned research correspondents, and an adopted semistructured questionnaire. We recorded a total of 903 conflict-related cases between humans and elephants, including crop raids (N= 337), house raids (N= 200), homestead garden raids (N= 263), and accidental attacks (N= 103), across sites, during August 2018 to July 2019, in Teknaf Wildlife Sanctuary (TWS). Elephant attack rates varied significantly between traditional forest dwellers (N= 179), illegal settlers (N= 370), villagers nearest forest (N= 212), Rohingya refugees (N= 53), and traditional forest different tribes (N= 89). It also varied along a space gradient, including inside forests (N= 423), buffer zones (N= 297), and outside forest villages (N= 183). The number of conflicts possessed by elephants varied discriminately and was unparalleled among different professions such as cattle ranchers (N= 104), gardeners (N= 112), paddy cultivators (N= 236), vegetable growers (N= 158), betel-leaf growers (N= 163), and forest resources collectors (N= 130). Most conflicts between humans and elephants occurred significantly during the night (N= 592), many during the morning (N= 154), evening (N= 138), and much less during midday (N= 19). The conflict intensity was also higher on the east coast (N= 552) than on the west coast (N= 351). The seasonal variation, including summer (N= 367), monsoon (N= 274), and winter (N= 262), was also significant. The elephant herd size was also an important factor triggering the conflict in TWS. We conclude that conflict intensity between humans and elephants is driven by settlers’ location, forest gradient, the profession of forest-dependent people, their household size and income level, attack time, and season.

Wildlife and human safety in the Tarangire ecosystem, Tanzania

Coexistence of people and wildlife outside protected areas is of critical conservation importance. However, human-wildlife interactions on shared landscapes can produce negative outcomes for wildlife populations and people. This article focuses on the effects of wildlife on local people's lived experiences of physical safety in the Tarangire ecosystem of northern Tanzania. The Tarangire ecosystem supports a diverse array of wildlife species of global conservation significance, encompassing several national parks, community-based conservation areas, forest reserves, and trophy hunting blocks. From the perspectives of local agropastoral Maasai communities, coexisting with wildlife is a routine part of everyday life, though some species are dangerous and pose threats to physical safety. These human security concerns compound the economic impacts of wildlife on local livelihoods, manifest in the forms of crop raiding, livestock depredation, and property damage. Based on mixed qualitative methods including ethnographic fieldwork (2019–2020; 2022; 2023), participant observation, household surveys (n = 1076), and in-depth interviews (n = 240), this paper identifies the species of particular concern to communities. Elephants, spotted hyenas, buffalo, and lions pose significant threats to human security. Venomous snakes and leopards are also safety concerns, but to a lesser degree. The anthropological dimensions of these threats to physical safety are underrepresented in the literature on human-wildlife conflict. This paper spotlights three recent incidents of people being killed by wildlife (elephant, hyena, and lion) in the area, and the psychosocial consequences that have since rippled across local communities. People expressed feelings of fear, resentment, anger, grief, and insecurity born of their experiences coexisting with large nondomestic mammals. Wildlife attacks on people engender material and emotional impacts with traumatic aftereffects. These human dimensions of wildlife are significant for equity reasons in and of themselves, and also for environmental sustainability as they affect people's tolerance for living with wildlife. Greater attention to the lived experiences of local people is needed to improve conservation practice in northern Tanzania.

Does Anthropogenic Influence on Habitats Alter the Activity Budget and Home Range Size of Toque Macaques (Macaca sinica)? Insight into the Human-Macaque Conflict

While classified as endemic and endangered, the Toque Macaque (Macaca sinica) is also considered a nuisance species in certain habitats in Sri Lanka due to its increased interactions with humans and crop raiding. This study analyzed the activity budget and home range utilization of two M. sinica troops inhabiting two contrasting landscapes to shed light on the species' rather poorly understood behavioral responses under environments of differing levels of anthropogenic pressure. We observed two macaque troops; first in a landscape with lower anthropogenic pressure (LAP) in Yagirala, and second in an area of moderate anthropogenic pressure (MAP) in Korathota, Sri Lanka. We followed the troops for ten months and observed their behaviors using focal animal sampling. Both troops spent most of their time on foraging and locomotion. However, the Korathota (MAP) troop spent more time on vigilance behaviors than the Yagirala (LAP) troop, which spent more time on amicable behaviors. This suggests that time allocation to amicable behaviors by Toque Macaques is higher in areas with lower anthropogenic pressure. The home range size was significantly larger in Yagirala (LAP) troop. We further found a significant difference in average home range size across seasons in both troops (p=0.001) with larger home ranges in the dry season: 2.81ha in the wet season vs 3.98 ha in the dry season for MAP troop and 5.1ha in the wet season vs 8.66ha in the dry season for LAP troop. Findings suggest that the resource availability and the level of anthropogenic pressure influence the activity budget and home range size of Toque Macaques. The outcomes of this study may be instrumental in developing future management strategies for Toques Macaques in anthropogenic settings and reducing human-macaque conflict. Practical management and conservation efforts should reduce the availability of anthropogenic food sources to macaques while increasing the size of natural forest patches.

Population Status and Threats to Galliform Bird in the Arjo-Didessa River Valley, Southwestern Ethiopia

The study was conducted to assess the species composition, population size, public knowledge, and threats to Galliform birds in the Arjo-Didessa River Valley, Southwestern Ethiopia. Data were collected from January 2018 to December 2020, covering both the dry and wet seasons. The study area was classified into four habitat categories: farmland, forest, grassland, and riverine areas. A line transects survey and point count routes were employed in the open habitats and dense habitats, respectively, to collect data. The species’ composition and relative abundance of Galliformes were estimated by timed species counting and encounter rates. To assess public knowledge and threats, direct inventories, questionnaire surveys, key informant interviews, and informal communications were employed. Three Galliform species, namely, Clapperton’s Francolin (Pternistis clappertoni), Helmeted Guineafowl (Numida meleagris), and Stone Partridge (Ptilopachus petrosus), were recorded in the area. The Helmeted Guineafowl were abundant (66.83%), Clapperton’s Francolin was common (30.14%), and Stone Partridge was a rare (3.03%) species. The population size of Galliformes recorded in the area was 461 during the dry season and 365 during the wet season, with a mean population size of 124.5 ± 11.5, 276 ± 33, and 12.5 ± 3.50 individuals of Clapperton’s Francolin, Helmeted Guineafowl, and Stone Partridge, respectively. The recorded flock size of Galliformes ranged from 1 to 22 individuals per flock. There was a statistically significant difference (F = 90.06, df = 3, and p &lt; 0.05 ) in the population size of Galliformes between habitats, where the highest mean was recorded in the farmland (141.5 ± 7.5) and the lowest in the riverine (61.5 ± 43.5) habitats. The majority of the respondents (86.36%, n = 286) have prior knowledge and awareness about guineafowl and francolin species. They use these species mainly as a source of food (55.06%), eggs and meat consumption, a source of income (28.48%), and other values (16.45%), including foster-rearing and medical practices. In addition, guarding, trapping, scarecrows, and related crop raid protection measures were employed in the area to protect crops from crop damage by these birds. Although there is factual public understanding and a positive attitude towards Galliformes in the study area, habitat destruction and loss, agricultural intensification, overgrazing, fire, fuelwood collection, agrochemicals, and hunting and egg collection were observed as major threats affecting the species and their habitats. Further research and community-based conservation interventions are, therefore, essential to thoroughly monitor the population trends of Galliformes and maintain their habitats in the region.

The human-elephant conflict in Sri Lanka: history and present status

AbstractHuman-elephant conflict (HEC) is a severe conservation, socio-economic and environmental issue of forests and ecosystems in elephant inhabiting countries, including Sri Lanka. Due to the rapid growth of human and elephant populations, both struggles to share limited land resources. The major causes and contexts of HEC in Sri Lanka include land use change, habitat loss due to human population growth, crop raiding behavior, problem elephants, and changes in agriculture practices. Since 2019, 125 people and 370 elephants have killed annually on average due to the conflict. Also, Sri Lanka has recorded the highest annual elephant deaths and second-highest human deaths due to HEC. The human death rate has increased by approximately 42% over previous three decades. The Sri Lankan government provides compensation for death and disability of the human caused by elephants and for elephant-damaged houses or properties. The Sri Lankan elephant (Elephas maximus maximus) is an endangered subspecies. It’s home range is restricted to 50–150 km2and depends on the availability of food, water, and shelter of the habitat in which they live. Various management strategies have been developed by the government and villagers to prevent and mitigate HEC. Today, Sri Lankan elephants are protected under Sri Lankan law, with punishment by fines and jail terms. This article reviews the history, present status, and traditional conflict management of HEC in Sri Lanka. We suggest a satellite data fusion approach with GIS modeling to identify risk zones of HEC to develop further protective measures for humans and elephants.

The rise of hyperabundant native generalists threatens both humans and nature.

In many disturbed terrestrial landscapes, a subset of native generalist vertebrates thrives. The population trends of these disturbance-tolerant species may be driven by multiple factors, including habitat preferences, foraging opportunities (including crop raiding or human refuse), lower mortality when their predators are persecuted (the 'human shield' effect) and reduced competition due to declines of disturbance-sensitive species. A pronounced elevation in the abundance of disturbance-tolerant wildlife can drive numerous cascading impacts on food webs, biodiversity, vegetation structure and people in coupled human-natural systems. There is also concern for increased risk of zoonotic disease transfer to humans and domestic animals from wildlife species with high pathogen loads as their abundance and proximity to humans increases. Here we use field data from 58 landscapes to document a supra-regional phenomenon of the hyperabundance and community dominance of Southeast Asian wild pigs and macaques. These two groups were chosen as prime candidates capable of reaching hyperabundance as they are edge adapted, with gregarious social structure, omnivorous diets, rapid reproduction and high tolerance to human proximity. Compared to intact interior forests, population densities in degraded forests were 148% and 87% higher for wild boar and macaques, respectively. In landscapes with >60% oil palm coverage, wild boar and pig-tailed macaque estimated abundances were 337% and 447% higher than landscapes with <1% oil palm coverage, respectively, suggesting marked demographic benefits accrued by crop raiding on calorie-rich food subsidies. There was extreme community dominance in forest landscapes with >20% oil palm cover where two pig and two macaque species accounted for >80% of independent camera trap detections, leaving <20% for the other 85 mammal species >1 kg considered. Establishing the population trends of pigs and macaques is imperative since they are linked to cascading impacts on the fauna and flora of local forest ecosystems, disease and human health, and economics (i.e., crop losses). The severity of potential negative cascading effects may motivate control efforts to achieve ecosystem integrity, human health and conservation objectives. Our review concludes that the rise of native generalists can be mediated by specific types of degradation, which influences the ecology and conservation of natural areas, creating both positive and detrimental impacts on intact ecosystems and human society.

Spatio‐temporal dynamics of human−elephant conflict in a valley of pineapple plantations

AbstractHuman−elephant conflict (HEC) is a major conservation challenge negatively impacting elephant populations and local agricultural livelihoods. Studies of drivers and spatiotemporal patterns of HEC have potential to indicate where mitigation actions should be prioritized with the goal of achieving long‐term coexistence. We examined temporal and spatial patterns of elephant crop raiding adjacent to Kuiburi National Park in southern Thailand by assessing locations of elephant raids in conjunction with multiple environmental variables along with crop characteristics and crop availability. Raiding incidents primarily happened in pineapple plantations, however compositional analysis suggested that fruit orchards were most preferred by elephants probably reflecting the high frequency of raiding in orchards relative to their small spatial area. Logistic regression models predicted that crop type and crop maturity stage, distance to forest and mitigation strategy combined had the strongest support in explaining the probability of crop raiding. Relative probability of raiding appeared to be associated with crop accessibility for elephants and perhaps crop nutrient value, with orchards with ripe fruit being most raided, while oil palm the least. The most frequently used mitigation measure was guarding by local people and could lower the probability when compared with other mitigations, although the relative effectiveness did not show a clear pattern; local guarding, patrolling by park rangers and physical barriers appeared to have some benefit but elephant‐preferred crops still had &gt;40% chance of being raided. Other results also indicated that water availability and season were not associated with elephant raiding, but rather crop type/crop stage had the most influence. The surprising lack of seasonality was likely due to the availability of the elephant's preferred crops year‐round. Finally, our results indicated that there is no zone in Kuiburi that is free from elephant raiding, leaving the entire community vulnerable. We recommend improvements in the mitigation measures through better coordination among stakeholders in such communities and development of concrete action plans for all stakeholders including an extensive market‐based examination of the feasibility of growing crops less preferred by elephants.

Enhancing Crop Yield with Animal Detection in Agricultural Land using Convolutional Neural Network and Sound Based Scare Tactics

Agricultural sector faces a major loss that is caused by animal assaults and is one of the greatest threats in diminishing crop production. Pests, natural disasters, and animal damage pose severe risks to Indian farmers, lowering productivity. Crop raiding is one of the most acrimonious human-animal conflicts as a result of the extension of farmed land into former animal habitat. Traditional methods followed by farmers are not that effective and it is not feasible to hire huge manpower to keep an eye on crops and prevent animals from destroying them. Since safety of both human and animals is equally vital, it is important to protect the crop from damage caused by animal as well as divert the animal without any harm. The goal is to develop a model that can accurately detect animals in agricultural lands. The system will use deep learning to detect animals entering into the farm by using convolutional neural network concept. This system will monitor the entire farm at regular intervals through a camera which will be recording the surrounding throughout the day. With the help of a deep learning model, the system detect the entry of animals and also use sound based scare tactics to deter animals from the agricultural land

Mapping crop damage by wild boars using multi‐scale risk modeling in Northeast China

AbstractBalancing development and conservation is one of the major challenges for modern societies. Negative human–wildlife interactions, especially crop raiding by wildlife, greatly undermine this objective. Jilin Province in Northeast China encompasses ecosystems of high biodiversity value but endures serious losses in crop yields due to wild boars (Sus scrofa). Mitigation measures have been hindered by knowledge gaps in wild boar damage patterns. Our objective was to investigate how wild boar damage responded to human‐dominated landscapes, evaluating landscape patterns of damage at multiple ecological scales, thus providing a provincial map of damage risk to assist with damage mitigation. We used 1,144 coordinates of wild boar damage from 2009 to 2013 to train multi‐scale risk models with the maximum entropy algorithm. Damage risk was highest on gentle slopes and in heterogenous landscapes composed of fragmented plantations and cropland, with high edge density among small discontinuous patches, and with dense settlements in countryside areas with sporadic road networks. Scale had a substantial effect on relationships between damage and landscapes. We recommend mitigating the conflict risk by improving the compensation system and reducing the damage frequency through repelling, electric fencing, and dissuasive feeding.